Plato's Euthyphro

 

The theory of forms that is presented in Euthyphro is an extremely important manner of understanding humanity and the way that they make decisions concerning what they believe to be right. It involves a conversation between Socrates and Euthyphro concerning the meaning of piety, with Euthyphro stating that piety involves what one does at a particular time. For example, at the time of his conversation with Socrates, Euthyphro is seeking to prosecute a wrongdoer, who also happens to be his father (Woods & Pack, 2007, p. 2). This is an extremely bold step because it shows that Euthypro is determined to implement the law despite the personal cost to himself and to his family. In addition, the theory of forms is also shown within the conversation through the desire to ensure that there is an understanding of the manner through which individuals can undertake actions that are pleasing to the gods. Determining what is dear to the gods is essential in the process of undertaking actions that upholds this belief. One of the most significant examples that is given during the conversation through which individuals can ensure that they do what pleases the gods is comparing the actions of Zeus against his father Cronos. Zeus punished his own father because of the latter’s tyranny; leading to a situation where Cronos was overthrown and Zeus took up the mantle of the leadership of the gods (Woods & Pack, 2007, p. 4). While this may have been the case, one of the most significant questions that is asked by Socrates is whether actions should be undertake because the gods love it or because the gods love it because it is pious, especially considering that not all the gods have the same beliefs.

One of the most fundamental aspects of the theory of forms as handled in Plato’s Phaedo is that it involves tackling general issues in such a way that they ultimately turn into one or more general ideas. To debate a single issue can lead to a situation where individuals come to find out that there are other significant issues behind it that leads to further debate concerning the issue. This is especially considering a discussion concerning an issue such as the superiority of either fearlessness or goodness. An argument between the opposing sides cannot take place effectively unless both parties have knowledge concerning their respective points. Therefore, without an understanding of what either fearlessness or goodness is, it cannot be possible for them to have a discussion because to do so would be pointless. If they are proffered with a definition of the subject under discussion, but the definition is one that is riddled with criticism, they can be able to ensure that there is a means through which to bring about an understanding of that the definition is not. A consequence is that criticism allows individuals to look into a deeper meaning of the situation that it being discussed in such a way that leads to the achievement of the ultimate truth, where individuals have to act not based on their beliefs, but based on what the end result will likely be. Therefore, while the criticism of a definition that has been proffered can be disheartening, it also provides a way through which better instruction can be given.

Another aspect of the manner through which Plato handles the theory of forms is that some general notions can end up setting ideal limits or standards. The end result is that individuals can be able to ensure that while they deviate slightly from a notion, it does not go too far away that t creates a degree of confusion. A consequence is that individuals are encouraged not to stick too strictly to their beliefs that they fail to consider the other aspects of life around them. What they believe to be true in one case can end up not actually being true in another, as seen in Socrates’ decision to drink the poison himself, and this has to be put in mind if there is to be a level of honesty with oneself (Plato, p. 52). Undertaking such actions is essential in coming up with a sense of morality in society because the motivations of individuals do not necessarily mean that the end result will either be good or bad. Instead, it becomes essential for individuals to not only critically understand their various standpoints, but also to consider the opinions of others in such a way that while they continue to pursue what they believe to be true, they also seek to consider the motivations of others. In this way, it becomes possible to make informed decisions that cater not only to personal needs, but also to the needs of others in society to such an extent that there is a level of harmony. Thus, while discussing or describing an individual as being one that is improving in the achievement of honesty and loyalty, it essentially means that he is getting closer to perfecting honesty and loyalty.

Another fundamental aspect of handling the theory of forms is that it seeks to advance the idea of timeless truths. The knowledge that individuals have concerning the various aspects of everyday life tend to be tensed truths, and these are based on what they believe. A consequence is that it is difficult to determine whether certain notions are either truths or falsehoods and this is to such an extent that there is a potential of knowledge being based on tensed truths or falsehoods. It is therefore necessary to consider all beliefs from various angles in such a way that ensures that while they are believed to be essential truths, they might also be false to such an extent that they end up having a negative effect on the individuals involved. The case of Euthyphro can be applied in this situation because this individual was ready to prosecute his own father based on the belief that Zeus, the chief Greek god, did the same to his own father. He shows a failure to consider how his actions are not only going to affect his father, but him as well because their relationship will be ruined as a result. Therefore, the observance of what are considered as timeless truths from various angles ensures that individuals avoid undertaking certain actions that might end up creating dilemmas for them while at the same time leading them to make serious mistakes that might affect them for the rest of their lives. What is considered as timeless truth cannot be measured based on how long it has been so and can only be accepted as it is.

      The manner through which the ideas that are contained within the theory of forms are addressed can be considered important in understanding the diverse aspects of life. This is especially considering that the theory of forms is ontology of concepts that seek to ensure that there is the creation of means through which a precise definition can be achieved. A result is that it becomes possible to make sure that those concepts that are considered timeless remain so and these in such a way that advances the understanding, which individuals have of them. They are essentially means through which concepts can be rationalized because they exist independently of the real thing or entity. Through the connection or contact that the human mind or soul has with the ordinary things and events that take place in their environment, they can at times end up attaining level of contact with the ideals and objects of the transcendent world to such an extent that it proves the immortality of the soul. This immortality is what can be considered an essential aspect of Plato’s definition of the Forms.

Robert Browning's views on religion

 

The views of Robert Browning concerning religion is one of the most fascinating subjects when it comes to the works of Victorian poets. This is because it involves a situation where there is no stable stance on the subject throughout his works to such an extent that there have been radically different views concerning the subject. A prominent aspect of Browning’s poetry is that it shows the ever-shifting attitudes that he has concerning religion and this can be considered an essential part of the various events that took place in his life (Turner 5). It can also be considered a means through which he expressed his inner thoughts concerning the way individuals in society responded to religion. Browning’s works are important because they show that rather than having consistent thoughts about religion, individuals ‘attitudes often change with the events, whether positive or negative, that take place in their lives. These individuals instead seek to make sure that they understand the purpose of religion and the role that it plays in their lives. Browning, through his poetry, challenges the social conformity towards religion that is prevalent in his society and this is to such an extent that very few individuals are able to challenge the institutions of religion. In this paper, there will be an analysis of Robert Browning’s views on religion through an assessment of his life experiences as well as his works, with specific reference to “The Bishop Orders His Tomb”, “Fra Lippo Lippi”, and “Porphyria’s Lover”.

Robert Browning was born in 1812 to a well to do family in England, with his family background being quite extensive because it included German, Scottish, and a paternal grandmother believed to be of mixed origin. He lived in an environment where his parents encouraged him to have considerable freedom of thought to such an extent that he was able to develop independent thought at a very early age. Furthermore, he became interested in the arts from a young age and this was essential in the advancement of his ideas concerning the society within which he lived. Browning’s life was one where because of his father’s good income was able to have an environment and the necessities that he needed to further his career as a poet (Gale). It was fundamental in helping to advance his initiatives because it allowed him to ensure that he made a careful study of his society, mostly because of his mother’s influence, and discover some of the different contradictions that plagued it. He was essentially taught at home because he hated the school environment and did not attend either Oxford or Cambridge because at the time, admission was only allowed for Anglicans while he was raised an evangelical. It is fundamental that Browning became so much involved in addressing the matter of religion in his poetic works, and this is especially the case following his marriage to Elizabeth Barrett, a sickly woman. His marriage was what brought him to the limelight because his wife was more well known in the literary circles at the time, and their decision to move to Italy for the sake of her health can be considered a testament of his love for her.

In his youth, Browning displayed considerable flexibility when it came to his religious beliefs. He was an individual who, despite being raised in a deeply religious environment, with his mother being an evangelical and a non-conformist. She, however, promoted her son’s interests in matters other than religion through her buying him the works of Shelley, who was a well-known atheist. A result was that for a time, Browning, who greatly admired Shelley, became both an atheist and a vegetarian, like his hero (Suzuki 63). However, despite this shift in belief, Browning seems to not have held on to it for a long time and it is possible that his shifting stance in his early youth was essentially a young man trying to find himself. Browning can be considered to have been quite openminded when it came to religious beliefs in his youth and it is this attitude that essentially guided him for the rest of his life. His flexibility when it came to religious beliefs does not seem to have prevented him from undertaking different works and it is possible that he sought to better understand religious beliefs through his works. His religious beliefs, which were at first moulded on that of his own family, must have been significantly challenged by the social realities around him and may have contributed to his not being too attached to conventional beliefs in his life. Therefore, while he may not have remained an atheist for long, Browning seems to have live in a situation where religion did not play a significant role in his youth.

Browning is an individual whose religious beliefs significantly changed as he grew older. This is especially considering that he lived at a time where a considerable number of people essentially conformed to the religious beliefs in which they were raised. However, Browning was among those whose beliefs were everchanging because he had the ability to question and criticise the dominant aspects of religion in his society. Browning’s works show an individual who despite being much concerned with religion did not address it himself. Instead, he made the various characters within his works make their own declarations concerning religion and its purpose. In this way, he was able to ensure that he created a level of debate concerning religion and how it affected the daily lives of individuals. Browning’s religious stance can be considered to have become more consistent as he grew older and during this period, it was affected more by the events that took place in his life rather than being based on any firm religious principles. He was an individual who showed a propensity towards the belief that religion could be a source of good in society and showed an admiration for the manner in which the bible promoted goodness. However, the different events that took place in his life, such as the death of his wife, may have significantly reduced his faith in religion to such an extent that he was seen as having rejected the very idea of its authenticity.

One of the most significant influences on Browning were the works of John Donne. While he had lived in the 17^th century, his works were essentially considered little more than uncouth. However, Browning went against the grain by admiring and idolising Donne, much to the surprise of his contemporaries (Gale). Browning’s admiration for Donne may have stemmed from the latter’s quite liberal perspective of the world, which was not popular during his time. His free discussion of such subjects as love and the manner through which he described the various subjects that he wrote about, were considered uncouth during his own time. However, Browning seems to have admired this individuals because of the daring that he had in being able to challenge the social conventions of the seventeenth century and seeking to think outside of the religious and social restrictions that had been placed on individuals in the society. Browning can be considered to also have been a liberal in a period where there seem to have been considerable social restrictions in addition to open hostility when it came to individuals going against what were considered correct religious practices. Therefore, Donne’s influence of Browning cannot be underestimated since it may have been the catalyst that made the latter venture into the way of thinking, in a liberal manner, that served as a hallmark of his works. Donne’s poetry also seems to have been responsible for the style that was later adopted by Browning in his own poetic works. Therefore, Donne was an important influence on Browning because the latter idolised him and his way of thinking, and this influence may have also been important when it came to Browning’s opinions concerning society and the role of religion within it.

The image of Faust plays a prominent role in the poetry of Robert Browning. This is because he is used to symbolise the poet, as is the case where this individual uses unconventional means to achieve his goals. Faust’s use of black magic, and the manner through which Browning makes him a symbol of the poet shown that the latter may have been experiencing a situation where his religious beliefs had taken a downturn. Faust’s life is highly symbolic of the need by human beings to take responsibility for their own lives and do what they can to ensure that they are in full possession of their destinies. Faust is therefore symbolic of the ability of human beings to control their lives without the intervention of religion. However, Browning seems to have lost interest in using Faust to symbolise the poet, with this role being given to Elisha. It shows that the considerable reversal that Browning experiences when it comes to his opinion concerning religion. When one considers that Faust was eventually condemned for his actions, his replacement by Elisha is extremely important. Elisha’s miracle, where he resurrected the son of the Shunamite woman is consistent with Browning’s regaining of his religious beliefs. It is symbolic of the revival of those instances where individuals, after having lose their faith and regained it, constantly seek to ensure that they attain the highest possible level of religious observance. Faust and Elisha in this case can be considered symbolic of the opposite religious inclinations that affect Browning from throughout his life.

Moreover, Browning is shown to be an individual who considered death to be imminent for all individuals. His works show a significant attempt to address death and the manner that it comes about. Therefore, while the world is a beautiful place to live in, despite the problems that can be found within it, it is inevitable that death will eventually find us and that with death, the world will cease to be of any use. Browning’s opinion of death can be seen in the way that he seems to be abandoning the prophetic role that he undertook when he me Elisha the representation of the poet. This abandonment is extremely symbolic of Browning’s significant belief that death will eventually come and that human beings do not have the power to resist it. The achievement of the goals of religion is to ensure that there is the advancement of the lives of individuals in such a way that they are able to achieve salvation after their deaths. Therefore, it is essential that humans seek to redeem themselves because at death, the beauty of the world opens up, and despite the desire to continue living within it, death denies them the ability to achieve this objective. It is possible that Browning was of the belief that human beings had to make the most of being alive through undertaking those tasks that they believed to be important while at the same time living righteously. This is especially considering that death is constantly imminent and it is likely to come about without warning.

It seems that Browning believes individuals in the world can only be able to achieve salvation through the observance of divine love. He further suggests that human beings are constantly shown evidence of divine power, but while the latter is in evidence, there is a failure to realise that it is important for it to be tempered with divine love (Steward). A consequence of this stance is that it promotes the belief that individuals should take responsibility for their actions in such a way that it allows them to view the world differently. It is likely that Browning is essentially condemning the selfish nature of human beings because he suggests that individuals do not do enough to promote the advancement of love in their societies. They instead seek to ensure that they accomplish their own selfish interests at the expense of others. The matter of salvation can also be considered a means through which Browning condemns the church establishment, especially the monopoly of power that is displayed by clergymen. The latter are essentially representations of all that is wrong with the world because rather than promoting the idea of divine love in society, they cause the considerable restrictions within it based on doctrinal differences. Thus, salvation can only be achieved through individual action, which is essential in the advancement of love in such a way that it becomes one of the sole purposes of human beings. A consequence would be that evidence of divine power tempered with that of divine love would ensure that salvation becomes a reality for a considerable number of individuals.

Browning is an individual who believes in the power of morality. It is an important belief because he believed in the artists making use of their works to advance morality. This is fundamental because the process involved artists being able to undertake the role of social conscience in their societies. Furthermore, when it came to morality, Browning often made use of biblical allusions to get his point across to his audience. He seems to advance the need to make sure that a situation is brought about where society is able to learn from the work of artists concerning the need to lead moral lives. The achievement of this goal can be considered fundamental because it shows the artist as not only an individual who entertains his audience, but also provides them with essential moral lessons concerning life. Browning sees his role as a poet as a means of lending society with the knowledge that they need to live morally while at the same time ensuring that there is the advancement of examples that can be followed by individuals in their societies. This assumption is also based on Christian beliefs, which are essential in bringing about the creation of a society where individuals are able to live with one another not only in peace, but also make morality the basis of their social environments. In this situation, religion plays a significant role because it ensures that there is a promotion of the power of morality in such a way that helps individuals come up with ways through which they can be able to support one another while at the same time maintaining high moral values.

Among the most significant issues that Browning deals with in his works is are love and knowledge. These are extremely important topics, especially considering that many individuals often seek one or the other, and it shows that throughout history, they have been fundamental human subjects. Knowledge is considered to be the means though which individuals seek to advance themselves in such a way that they are able to learn more concerning their environments (Tate 196). Love, on the other hand, is the feeling of affection that individuals have for one another and it is for the most part based on the unconditional positive feelings that individuals have for others other than themselves. The question of whether to pursue one or another is seen through the manner in which individuals find themselves in a bind because they have difficulty choosing one or the other. However, Browning seems to be of the opinion that individuals who seek knowledge tend to end up in difficult situations because once they begin the process, they are not able to stop. The result is that they bring about their own destruction by the knowledge that they seek to desperately. Love, because of its unconditional nature, can be considered a means through which people can be able to develop the positive feelings that they need to ensure that there is the establishment of an environment where they are comfortable and in harmony with others. Loves unconditional nature is essential in the creation of strong bonds between individuals which ensure that they are able to look out for one another. It makes individuals think beyond themselves, unlike knowledge which can be considered a destructive force if not brought under control swiftly.

“Porphyria’s Lover” is a poem that seems to discuss love and the manner through which without it, the situation can end up leading to brutal situations. This poem begins with the persona describing his lover. This description is extremely important in developing an understanding of the persona’s attitude towards his lover and the manner through which their love has developed. However, in the end, the person strangles his lover in the most brutal manner, essentially using her own blond hair (Browning and Sweeney 3). The poem is an extremely powerful testament of the situation where individuals conduct extremely evil acts in the name of love. The failure to understand the true meaning of love is the root cause of the evil that takes place in this poem and this is to such an extent that it leads the persona into a very dark place. The tone of the poem show that potential that the world has to descend into evil if the power of morality is not applied and it makes the audience think more about their own lives and their potential to conduct great evil if they do not adhere to the moral code that is taught in Christianity. The manner through which the persona describes his love and then ends up murdering her is a sign of the corruption that is prevalent in the world because his actions at the end show him to be an extremely evil person who is not restricted by moral concerns. The lack of a moral compass among human beings because of the corruption of or non-observance of religious teachings can be considered the reason behind the persona’s actions against his lover.

Another poem that touches on the corruption of human nature as well as that of the Church is “The Bishop Orders His Tomb”. This is a poem that seeks to show the manner through which the clergy has descended to the level of promoting their own interests over those of their flock. The title of the poem shows the Bishop as being an extremely vain man because he orders for a tomb to be built for him (Nafchi, Mirzayee and Zadeh 229). It is obvious that this project will involve the use of church funds, which can be put to better use through helping the poor in society. It is essential to understand that the clergymen have to lead by example and Browning, through his poem, shows that the Bishop is an individual who completely goes against his calling to such an extent that he ends up choosing the promotion of his own interests over undertaking the responsibilities that have been given to him as a leader of the Church (Wong 568). This action is a sign of the greater problem that can be found in the Church as a whole, because it shows clergymen in an extremely bad light. These individuals are shown be greedy to such an extent that they fail to observe their vows of poverty and instead seek to achieve earthly goals. These goals are extremely important for these individuals, as exemplified by the Bishop; a sign that the Church has essentially deviated from its purpose and has instead become a means through which clergymen can be able to control considerable wealth while at the same time achieving their personal ambitions.

“Fra Lippo Lippi” is a poem by Browning that essentially seeks to show the considerable power that poets have over the various human subjects that they seek to write about. This poem addresses the issue of corruption in the Church as well as the hypocrisy that goes with it. It is essential to note that the poem makes the point of addressing the excesses of the Church through the use of such aspects of regular life as sex and money (Nafchi, Mirzayee and Zadeh 227). The setting, which is in a dark alley, is highly symbolic of the manner through which the Church, rather than being the source of light, has become a place of darkness. The darkness is symbolic of the corruption of the Church, which has failed to honour its task as the defender of the faith and has instead led to the advancement of a perspective where it is an active player in the corruption of the temporal world. This failure to accomplish its duties leads to a situation where the Church has essentially become corrupt, as seen in the description of the brothel in the alley which symbolises the Church. The Church has essentially become a source of corruption where it seeks such temporal things as money, which it does not use for the benefit of all Christians, and instead is used for the benefit of the clergy.

The Church has essentially become a means to achieve swift wealth and power within society. This is an idea that is shown in the poems discussed above and it leads to the conclusion that members of the clergy are essentially power-hungry individuals who feel that they have the means through which to ensure that they advance their own interests. The selfishness of these individuals can be seen through the god-like characteristics that they adopt, especially when it comes to such issues as the use of expensive regalia in order to impress the masses. The masses are made to believe that the people who hold power in the Church are above them and that they are essentially the representatives of God on earth. A consequence is that these individuals end up using their positions to advance their own power in competition with temporal powers. The splendours seen in the Church and their use by those in power within it shows that there is a lot of corruption. The people in power within the Church have essentially failed to ensure that they pursue the vows of poverty in line with the teachings of Christ, and this is the reason why Browning seems to make plain that they are nothing more than power-hungry individuals.

In conclusion, Browning’s position concerning religion can be considered a very challenging subject. His varying views when it came to religion throughout his life may have come about because of the need to better understand the connection between it and the lives that individuals led in their societies. In this paper, there has been an analysis of the subject through an assessment of his life experiences as well as a number of his works. Browning is an individual who shows signs of having a belief that religion is an essential aspect of society because it leads individuals to achieve a level of morality. It is through the power of morality that they are able to clearly see how the world around them works and the need to advance positive values.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Works Cited

Browning, Robert, and Matthew Sweeney. Porphyria's Lover. ProQuest LLC, 2004. Print.

Gale, Cengage Learning. A Study Guide for John Donne's" Song". Gale, Cengage Learning, 2016. Print.

Nafchi, Asghar Moulavi, Mitra Mirzayee, and Morteza Sobhani Zadeh. "Robert Browning: A Dramatic Monologue Marvel." International Letters of Social and Humanistic Sciences 63 (2015): 225-32. Print.

Steward, PA. "The Religious Faith in the Victorian Age." Ashvamegh... the literary flight! 2.19 (2016). Print.

Suzuki, Rieko. "‘What Was All This except the Lesson of Life?’: Browning’s Fifine at the Fair and Shelley." The Keats-Shelley Review 30.1 (2016): 63-69. Print.

Tate, Gregory. "Infinite Movement: Robert Browning and the Dramatic Travelogue." Victorian Poetry 52.2 (2014): 185-203. Print.

Turner, Katie. "Professor Marchbanks English 21 16 April 2004 Tennyson and Browning: Providential Perspectives."  (2004). Print.

Wong, Amy R. "Town Talk and the Cause Célèbre of Robert Browning’s the Ring and the Book." Modern Philology 113.4 (2016): 550-72. Print.

 

The Epic of Gilgamesh and The Code of Hammurabi

The Epic of Gilgamesh and Hammurabi’s Code are some of the most ancient texts from ancient Mesopotamia that have been found by Historians and archaeologists to date. Both of these texts are rich in information concerning Mesopotamia at this time; it politics, religion, social relationships and their cities. They show how religion was a very important part of the everyday lives of the ancient Mesopotamians and this is exemplified when Hammurabi declares that the set of laws which he has codified have been given to him directly by the god Shamash (to justify his codification of the law), and Gilgamesh’s going to the temple of Shamash to consult with the god before undertaking a major mission. In both of these texts, it can be noted that the sun – god Shamash, who was also the Mesopotamian god of justice, plays a major role in some of the major events which take place considering that he granted Hammurabi the laws and always gave guidance to Gilgamesh so that he would succeed in his missions.

The values of the ancient Sumerians seem to have been guided by their religion and many believed that they needed the authority of a god while doing anything important to ensure that their actions were a success. One would notice in these texts that the relationships between the people of this society in the ancient times were very close and that friendships had a higher value then than they have today. Friends tended to treat each other more like siblings than as people from different backgrounds and a good example of this is the relationship between Gilgamesh and Enkidu. Although Gilgamesh was the king of Uruk and Enkidu was wild man from the fields, these two strike a friendship which would be very unlikely in the current times. It can further be noted that the rulers of ancient Mesopotamia tended to place a very high value to their connection with the gods most likely in an attempt to justify their authority over their people. We note that Hammurabi claims to have been in direct communication with a god when he was give the laws which would be imposed on his people. Gilgamesh on the other hand is said to have been two thirds god and one third man and that his mother was the goddess Ninsun who is time and again seen to intercede on his behalf to the other gods. It is most likely a fact that Gilgamesh’s attempt to attain immortality was in a bid to destroy his human side and retain his divine part.

The influences of religion are still very prominent today as they were in ancient Mesopotamia. In fact, religious influences today are so strong that in some instances, they border on fanaticism. Those who have retained their religious beliefs in a world that is headed to secularization believe that what they are doing is the will of God and that anyone not doing the same is a sinner and will die in hell. Furthermore, some of the most powerful states in the world today are monarchies and the monarchs sit on their thrones not because of any great ability but because a legendary ancestor once ruled before them and this is used to justify their social position. The similarities between the code of Hammurabi and the Ten Commandments can clearly be seen especially when one considers that they both are said to have been handed by a god and that they are both based on the eye for an eye doctrine. The Gilgamesh epic and the Flood story also have many similarities especially when one considers that a version of the latter story is told in the former in greater detail than is told in the Bible.

The Stranger by Albert Camus - Analysis

In “The Stranger”, Meurstault’s mother’s funeral and Meursault’s obvious indifference to the funeral symbolize his detachment from the world, a place full of nothing but conflict and agony in his eyes, and his optimistic attitude regarding death. In the text, Meursault shows a lack of care towards many events and circumstances, even the ones that might be considered essential for the average person, and is thus looked down upon by members of society. His mother’s funeral symbolizes the ironic joy that can be found in death, the liberation of all life’s complications, conflicts, and miseries. Initially, Meursault is perturbed upon discovering his mother’s death. However, upon going to his mother’s funeral, he is unaffected, believing his mother is in a better place. Of his mother’s death, he says, “Mother died today. Or maybe yesterday; I can't be sure.” This shows that despite the fact that his mother is dead, he does not feel any sort of sadness or loss, and it is possible that he considers when she died not to be important.

Instead of concentrating on the funeral service, as normal people would, Meursault instead focuses on the people who have attended the funeral. He does not display any of the regret or happiness that people have come to support him in his time of need, when he has just lost his mother.

Some other memories of the funeral have stuck in my mind. The old boy’s face, for instance, when he caught up with us for the last time, just outside the village. His eyes were streaming with tears, of exhaustion or distress, or both together. But because of the wrinkles they couldn’t flow down. They spread out, crisscrossed, and formed a smooth gloss on the old, worn face.

Meursault is detached from most things in the world and shows a lack of care towards most occurrences. However, when Meursault is free to bond with Marie, a girl he likes, he enjoys life, even if for brief moments. But even towards Marie, he seems to be indifferent because of his belief that the happiness which he is feeling is only momentary and that it will come to an end soon. When Marie asks him whether he loves her, he states that it does not mean anything, and this shows that he has no intention of taking his relationship with her further than it already is a carnal one. Meursault states, “She was wearing a pair of my pajamas with the sleeves rolled up. When she laughed I wanted her again. A minute later she asked me if I loved her. I told her it didn’t mean anything but that I didn’t think so. She looked sad.”

When he is deplored by society and incarcerated for killing a man, his freedom is essentially confiscated from him, and any values or desires that he was once able to act upon would not be able to be acted upon anymore. In addition, any appreciation he had for life and the world in which he lived is vanquished. Meursault’s trial is not focused on his assassination of the Arab man, but on his “indifference” and his “lack of emotion”, both which should be irrelevant. When questioned repeatedly about his indifference towards his mother’s funeral while he’s incarcerated, Meursault becomes upset and impatient. He finds it ridiculous and redundant the way society is condemning him for his beliefs and not for the crime he committed. Meursault is subject to execution and, at this point, is almost entirely detached from the world. He remembers his mother had told him stories of his father going to executions. Meursault believes that if he would be freed from jail, visiting executions would be joyful for him. This is due to the fact that Meursault finds joy in people being freed from their pain, their troubles, and the world itself. When a priest questions Meursault, Meursault begins divulging all his thoughts, revealing how his mother’s funeral was a moment of joy and not of grief. He was “indifferent” to his mother’s funeral because he loved her and wanted her to rest in peace and be free from the world’s complexities. Meursault’s mother’s funeral is the symbol of hope for Meursault, the symbol that he can find absolute interest in something that will last forever, and the symbol that he can be free from the world and free from society’s expectations.

When Meursault kills the Arab man, it reveals his indifference to the world and to all those who are around him. He does not experience any guilt when he is confronted for this action, he does not display any of the remorse that would be expected. He instead refers to the killing as an act which was inspired by the glare of the sun and the heat. He does not account for the reason why he shot the Arab four more times despite the fact that he was dead. One would surmise that Meursault was not only indifferent, but that he actually took a perverse pleasure in hurting other people. He realizes that his actions will land his in trouble yet he goes ahead and does them anyway. It is as if he finds satisfaction in the act of taking the Arab’s life, despite the fact that there was no real antagonism between them. Meursault gives a vivid description of how he ends up murdering the Arab in cold blood:

The trigger gave; I felt the smooth underside of the butt; and there, in that noise, sharp and deafening at the same time, is where it all started. I shook off the sweat and the sun. I knew that I had shattered the harmony of the day, the exceptional silence of a beach where I'd been happy. Then I fired four more times at the motionless body where the bullets lodged without leaving a trace. And it was like knocking four quick times on the door of unhappiness.

This may have been the reason why he agreed to help his friend, Raymond, take revenge on the latter’s Arab lover because of her perceived unfaithfulness. His incarceration is a time for reflection for Meursault and it helps him to solidify his belief of being indifferent to the world around him. He does not spend his time regretting his actions as one would expect, and instead, he spends most of his time attempting to catalogue all the things he owned in his apartment. He even becomes indifferent to the fact that Marie, his girlfriend, does not come to visit him in prison, contemplating that it was human nature to forget and that it was very likely that he would also be forgotten once he was dead as he states “maybe she had become tired of being the girlfriend of a condemned man. It also occurred to me that maybe she was sick, or dead. These things happen. Anyway, after that, remembering Marie meant nothing to me. That seemed perfectly normal to me, since I understood very well that people would forget me when I was dead.”

When Meursault is approaching the end of his life since the court is likely to sentence him to death, he is visited by a priest in an attempt to save his soul. Meursault remains adamant in his atheistic beliefs, stating that God is a waste of time and that he has no interest in Him. The priest does his best to persuade this strange man, “...he said firmly, "God can help you. All the men I’ve seen in your position turned to Him in their time of trouble." Obviously, I replied, they were at liberty to do so, if they felt like it. I, however, didn’t want to be helped, and I hadn’t time to work up interest for something that didn’t interest me.” The lack of interest displayed by Meursault is an indication of his belief that there is no God and that even if His existence were true, then his soul was already condemned. It shows his lack of faith in anything or anyone in the world, because priests, in many circumstances, tend to be a symbol of hope and salvation since they have the power to grant forgiveness for sins.

In conclusion, it can be said that the main theme of this book is that of indifference because of how the main character behaves towards the world. This indifference seems to be born out of pessimism towards life as Meursault does not seem to derive joy from it. Instead of looking upon death with fear or sadness, he looks upon it as a means of salvation from the troubles of the world. It is possible that when Camus was writing this book, he was contemplating on the meaninglessness of the physical world, since it is a place of pain and suffering, and the escape from it through death.

The Transformation of Achilles

Homer’s Iliad is one of the most popular poems from the ancient world, and it sought to ensure that it promoted the achievements of the various heroes. Among the heroes that are mentioned in the poem, perhaps even one of its most significant subjects is Achilles. Achilles is an individual that undergoes a considerable transformation from being one full of godly pride to one that is essentially human. This paper seeks to document the transformation that Achilles undergoes through an analysis of his pride and honor, his rage, and finally, his humanization.

Among the most significant factors that guide the life Achilles in the Iliad are his pride and honor. These are considered essential traits, especially by the author of the poem, who seeks to enhance them through his characters. Achilles’ pride and honor are what dictate his actions and this is especially the case where he feels that his honor has been betrayed by Agamemnon because the latter, who is the commander of the Achaeans, has essentially taken his mistress, Briseis, away from him. Achilles does not seem to really love Briseis because despite constantly professing his love for her, he does not do anything to stop Agamemnon’s agents from taking her away from him. Achilles therefore is driven by his pride not to undertake any action to protect his mistress, while at the same time also seeking to ensure that his displeasure is shown through his decision not to help the Achaeans in the war effort against Troy.

In addition, Achilles is driven by his rage as seen in the line “Rage – Goddess, sing the rage of Peleus’ son Achilles,” (1, 1). The situation essentially leads to significant losses in men during the Trojan War. This is especially the case considering that because of his rage against Agamemnon, Achilles refuses to support his fellow Achaeans in the war to such an extent that the conflict continues to drag on for longer than would otherwise have been the case. His rage, coupled with pride, leads Achilles to focus all his attention on a single individual rather than considering the plight of his countrymen. However, all this changes when Achilles’ best friend, Patroclus, is killed by Hector, the Trojan hero. The result is that Achilles’ rage is shifted from Agamemnon and directed at Hector, on who he wants to exact revenge. This situation changes the tide of the Trojan War to such an extent that Achilles ends up leading the Achaeans to victory while at the same time ending up killing Hector.

Following the death of Hector at the hands of Achilles, the latter’s rage abates and he ended up becoming a more human character. Achilles becomes more capable of showing human emotions, as seen in his joyousness and fairness when he distributes prizes to his colleagues during the funeral games held in honor of Patroclus. In addition, he professes his love for Briseis, who has been restored to him; is a sign of his essentially being happy following the satisfaction of his rage. Moreover, he also agrees to give back Hector’s body to his father King Priam, who desires to give his son an honorable funeral as befits a prince of Troy. Therefore, Achilles’ transformation leads him from a proud individual who believes himself to be superior to all other to being one that is essentially more human with feelings that can be associated with the latter personality.

In conclusion, Achilles is shown to be an individual that throughout most of the Iliad has a building rage. The intervention of the gods prevent him from killing Agamemnon when they have an argument, but it is only after the death of Patroclus that Achilles’ rage becomes of service to the Achaeans. Hector’s death transforms Achilles into a more human character because all the rage that is in him is expended.