Social Constructionism

 

Social constructionism essentially involves the manner through which individuals in society view their world. It is a means through which the world view of these individuals can be understood within their own context rather than being judged based on the world views of other communities or cultures. Social constructionism has had an influence of people all over the world and this has been the basis upon which cultures have developed over the centuries. In this paper, there will be an analysis of social constructionism as an influential context when it comes to matters concerning identity, desire, or behavior.

One of the most significant factors that come about because of social constructionism is the assumptions that are made concerning the identity of individuals. In the contemporary world, there are a growing number of individuals who do not possess a specific social identity and instead only view themselves as human beings. This is especially the case in situations where a girl kisses another without identifying as lesbian.[1] Under such circumstances, perfectly straight individuals end up undertaking sexual actions with members of the same sex and this does not have an effect on their identity as straight people.

The influence of social constructionism can be seen in the manner through which such emotions as desire are perceived in society. In the contemporary world, especially in the West, sexual desire has come to take a new meaning because rather than individuals simply being attracted to the opposite sex, there has been an increase in the number of incidents of fluidity. Therefore, even those individuals who identify as being lesbian or gay end up being attracted to the opposite sex and vice versa.[2] A result of this situation is that the rigid perspectives that society had placed on sexual relationships are increasingly being eroded and are instead being replaced by a situation where individuals do what they believe to be right.

The behavior of individuals has also come to be influenced by social constructionism. The influence of social media in this matter cannot be underestimated because the latter has become an important player in the development of new social constructions. The behavior of some individuals has changed to such an extent that it has led to the development of instances where people behave differently in order to not only become a part of a social group, but also to attract attention. An instance of this is where girls kiss one another in order to attract the attention of boys.[3] In addition, there are instances where gay people, especially in a conservative Muslim country like Indonesia, have to hide their sexuality because of their religion, because in Islam, homosexuality is considered a sin.[4]

In conclusion, social construction is an essential part of societies because it helps to govern the evolution of identity, desire, and behavior. Through this process, it becomes possible for societies to develop their own cultures, which essentially move from the fringes to the mainstream as more individuals buy into the new ideas. The ability of individuals to ensure that they adhere to the social norms of their own communities leads to a situation where social constructionism becomes a prominent part of their lives and how they conduct themselves.

 

 

 

Bibliography

Boellstorff, Tom. "Between Religion and Desire: Being Muslim and Gay in Indonesia." American Anthropologist 107, no. 4 (2005): 575-85.

Rupp, Leila J, and Verta Taylor. "Straight Girls Kissing." Contexts 9, no. 3 (2010): 28-32.

 

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[1] Leila J Rupp and Verta Taylor, "Straight Girls Kissing," Contexts 9, no. 3 (2010): 29.

[2] Ibid., 31.

[3] Ibid., 29.

[4] Tom Boellstorff, "Between Religion and Desire: Being Muslim and Gay in Indonesia," American Anthropologist 107, no. 4 (2005): 578.

The State of Nature

 

The state of nature is one of the most debated opinions concerning the nature of human beings by philosophers. This is an extremely important concept because it seeks an understanding of the manner through which humans before the formation of societies behaved. The analysis of the state of nature considered the reasons behind why individuals ended up becoming part of societies, which essentially brought about a situation where there was the creation of the nation-state. A consequence of such a situation was that individuals shifted from a state of nature to a state of society, and the problems that the latter entails. Among these problems are the restrictions that the society puts on the natural rights of individuals, to such an extent that they essentially become subject to a political system. In this paper, there will be an analysis of the state of nature, with reference to the opinions of John Locke and Jean-Jacques Rousseau being compared and contrasted.

Among the most important philosophers to undertake to explain this concept are Locke and Rousseau, both of who consider individuals before the formation of societies had better lives than is the case with those who live in societies. Locke and Rousseau both consider the state of nature as having been more conducive for individuals, because they were able to exercise their freedoms better. Locke argues that individuals were able to live the way that they wanted without harming one another because they in the state of nature, they made use of reason. The governance of reason meant that they are able to ensure they attained all their needs without resorting to exploiting one another, as is the case in society (Locke 3). This argument is further advanced by Rousseau, who considers the state of nature as having been the creation of a situation where individuals were not able to harm one another because they did not know each other well enough (Rousseau 50). The arguments made by both Rousseau and Locke show that they take a common stance when it comes to the state of nature, where they believe that individuals had more freedoms, and could act in such a way as to ensure that their interests were catered for.

Locke and Rousseau, despite the similarities of their arguments, also have a number of differences. Locke promotes the idea that in the state of nature, individuals were governed by reason (Locke 3). He essentially suggests that in the state of nature, humans have the capacity to think and determine what it best for them because of the presence of natural laws. This argument is one that seeks to show that the state of nature and the governance of natural laws are essential in the advancement of the rights of individuals. It also considers that this state to be the most conducive because it allows for the supremacy of natural laws over those of society. This is an argument that does not agree with that proposed by Rousseau, who proposes that in the state of nature, individuals are neither good nor bad. Instead, they live in an environment where they are not able to distinguish what it right from wrong. Moreover, Rousseau is of the opinion that individuals in a state of nature are essentially blank slates, who end up being influenced by societies, which are essentially determinants of whether individuals will be good or evil (Rousseau 46). Therefore, Rousseau seems not to believe that the state of nature involves the governance of reason, and this is especially considering that individuals do not know good from evil.

The origins of the political community are explained by both Locke and Rousseau and this is done in relation to the state of nature. Locke is of the opinion that human beings are born free and that they become involved in the political community out of the desire not to be alone. He suggests that humans are created by God in a manner that encourages them to seek companionship, meaning that they are inevitably drawn into a society that essentially develops into a political community (Locke 28). However, despite being a part of the political communities, natural law should take precedence, meaning that it is essential for the natural rights of individuals should be respected at all times. Rousseau, on the other hand, states that the formation of the political community or civil state is responsible for the erosion of the state of nature (Rousseau 167). He considers the latter to be real freedom that is the essential right of all individuals, but with the formation of political society, this freedom is disrupted because of the dominance of one group of individuals over another. The result is that most individuals end up not having the freedoms provided by the state of nature to undertake the actions that they need to in order to bring about the advancement of their own personal needs.

Despite their differences, both Locke and Rousseau provide very pertinent arguments concerning the state of nature. However, the account provided by Rousseau is one that is more convincing because it provides a perspective concerning the state of nature and how this state is affected by the formation of society. One of the most important arguments that Rousseau makes, and is more convincing than that of Locke, is that in the state of nature, individuals are essentially blank slates, meaning that they are unaffected by any form of corruption (Rousseau 50). Instead, they live in an environment where they are governed by their own needs, neither being good or bad. This is an important argument because it shows Rousseau’s belief that society is what brings about the disruption of the state of nature, to such an extent that individuals are pushed towards behaving in a manner that is against their nature (Widerquist and McCall). Furthermore, Rousseau’s argument shows that it is society that has an influence on the development of individuals into either good or evil, because they become affected by the restrictive practices that are a part of the social environment. A result of such a situation is that one group of people achieves dominance over another because they have the ability to enforce their will (Rousseau 259); essentially going against the state of nature where all people are not only equal, but are also free to do as they please.

The natural state of mankind can be considered an essential concept because it seeks to ensure that there is the promotion of the rights of individuals in society. This is especially considering that it involves individuals having natural rights that are inalienable, even within the social structure. The recognition of natural rights is fundamental in the establishment of means through which to ensure that individuals are not only able to live according to their own desires, but do so based on the governance of reason. Reflecting on the natural state of mankind is essential in the establishment of a conversation concerning the effects of society on the rights of individuals. It also helps to bring about a conversation about the need to ensure that there is a respect of the natural rights of individuals in such a way that enables these rights to be recognized even within a social environment, where the restrictions against them are numerous. The attainment of a just society, where individuals have a right to ensure that there is the advancement of their interests by the political class through the application of reason, is essential in the advancement of the state of nature. Therefore, rather than the state of nature being one governed by chaos, a reflection on it is an important means of bringing about a respect for the natural rights of individuals.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Works Cited

Locke, John. Second Treatise of Government: An Essay Concerning the True Original, Extent and End of Civil Government. John Wiley & Sons, 2014.

Rousseau, Jean-Jacques. The basic political writings. Hackett Publishing, 2010.

Widerquist, Karl, and Grant McCall. "Myths about the State of Nature and the Reality of Stateless Societies." Analyse & Kritik 37.1-2 (2015): 233-258.

A Small Place by Jamaica Kincaid

Jamaica Kincaid in her novel can be said to be structured into four sections each of which is meant to address the diverse issues concerning the island nation of Antigua. Throughout the novel, one will come to the conclusion that the beauty of Antigua that is described by the author is not what it seems. This, it can be argued, is due to the fact that while the island may be full of beauty, it is also ridden with a corruption so great that it has become an integral part of the society. It can further be argued that the main them of the novel is corruption, which is so rife in the Antiguan society that it has led to its underdevelopment. Kincaid describes the beauty of Antigua and makes a sharp contrast of this beauty to the harsh realities which plague this island. When one considers the argument to support this view of her country, one comes to the conclusion that it is all indeed true. One of the arguments that Kincaid makes in support of her argument that Antigua is a corrupt society is based on the fact that while the island has many expensive Japanese vehicles, most of them seem not to be working properly (Kincaid, 7). She further makes the observation of there being various mansions all over the islands, most of which were gained through illicit means. The corruption in the government is so bad that ten years after an earthquake, the public library that was damaged in the event has yet to be repaired. The example of the library’s dilapidated nature, it can be argued, is a symbol of the moral and ethical corruption that is prevalent in Antiguan society.

It can be argued that Kincaid, in her novel, is against tourism as it is packaged by the government and businesses of Antigua because of its insincere depiction of life on the island. While tourists are only shown the beautiful aspects of Antigua, they are not normally shown what has come to be the reality among most of the people on the island; that they are living in deplorable conditions because of the mismanagement of their economy. Kincaid’s arguments seem to be overly critical of the government and all of those who are involved in it, because of their massive corruption which has led to the destruction of the country. In the novel, there is even speculation concerning whether the colonial day may have been better than the present, where everything seems to be going wrong. It can be argued that Kincaid looks upon the government and the people of Antigua in general as being too complacent and accepting of the moral ugliness that it taking place in society, slowly destroying it. In addition to this, Kincaid seems to be highly critical of the culture that the people on the island seem to be practicing and this is because of the fact that most of them practice English culture, which is not their original culture (Kincaid, 12). While the people of the island hated the English treatment of them during the colonial period, they seem to have gone against all logic by abandoning or creating their own culture and have instead adopted the culture of their former oppressors. The latter argument seems to be highly critical of the people of Antigua because it seems to show their feeling of inferiority towards the English despite their resentment towards their treatment of them. It seems that Kincaid is attempting to display the irony that exists in Antiguan society, that while the people hate the oppressor, they love the oppressor’s culture.

Among the most prominent issues that are discussed in the novel is concerning the library, which, despite the ability of the wealthy members of the Mill Reef Club to fix it, they choose not to do it. They instead demand that the library be rebuilt first before they can offer any assistance of their own. It can be argued that the Mill Reef Club, being an all-white establishment does not consider the current state of affairs in the country, being out of their control, to be undesirable, and that they are only being nostalgic for the colonial days, when they were the ruling class of Antigua (Kincaid, 24). The neglect of the library is also a sign, it can be argued, of the state of affairs of the education sector of the country since it has also come to suffer a lot of neglect from the government. Books, it is well known, are the means through which culture is preserved and the fact that the minister of culture has allowed the library to remain as it is ten years after the earthquake is deplorable. In fact, an argument can be made that the minister of culture, despite holding onto a ministry responsible for the cultural development of Antigua does not seem to know what he is doing. In fact, it can be said that he is only in his position because of the pay as well as the prestige that goes with it, not knowing exactly what his docket stands for. It can also be argued that this is a testament of the corruption in government that has made it possible for the development of a lack of the preservation of Antiguan culture in favour of others.

In conclusion, it can be said that Kincaid makes many pertinent arguments concerning culture in the Antiguan society, and how it has come to be affected by the government as well as the people themselves. The depiction of the government in the novel is highly unfavourable because of the fact that many of the government officials seem to be extremely corrupt and because of this, they have made Antigua to be an underdeveloped country. The neglect of the library, which has been given a lot of prominence in the novel, can be said to be a symbol of the destruction of the culture of Antigua in favour of the English culture, which has created a situation of cultural loss within its population. It can therefore be concluded that Kincaid’s novel is about the loss Antiguan culture and the need to maintain this culture for future generations.

Analysis: Persuasion by Jane Austen

Restored hope for Fredrick

In the novel Persuasion, Jane Austen attempt to consider the various aspects of influence that family and friends might pressure an individual into making decisions that are not good for him or her. This is exactly what happens in the novel, where Anne is persuaded by her friend, Lady Russell, her father, and the older sister to break off her engagement to Frederick, who is a clever and ambitious young man, but with no personal fortune. As a result of this, the two go their separate ways and it is only after some eight years that the two meet again (Austen, 12). The fact that neither of them is married is a testament of the love that they share; despite the fact that circumstances have changed for Frederick, who is now an eligible bachelor with plenty of wealth. While Anne regrets her decision to break off their engagement, Frederick, on the other hand, still hurting from her rejection, does his best to ignore her through his not allowing any personal contact with Anne (Fitzpatrick Hanly, 1001). The return of Frederick into her life seems to secretly restore Anne’s hope that they would get back together and she often feels hurt from the way he treats her as well as his attention towards other younger women of her social circle.

Determined to move on and make a new life

When the Crofts rent out her family home because of the debts that Walter, Anne’s father, sustains due to his lavish lifestyle, Anne chooses to live with her own life and completely ignore Frederick’s cold treatment of her. She avoids Frederick as much as possible determined that it is best for her to do so as she has no further hope of having him as a husband; not after her rejection (Austen, 24). This creates a situation where, despite the pain that she is feeling, she keeps on living her own life, even going to the extent of joining her father and her older sister in Bath, despite their low opinion of her. Her determination to move on and make a new life for herself is rewarded through her making the acquaintance of her estranged cousin, William, who develops an interest in her not just as family, but also as a woman (Vandersluis, 88). This helps Anne to come out of her shell and enables her to regain her pride not only in her womanhood, but also in her beauty, of which until William came into her life, she had not been confident.

Making her own decisions

The fact that she chooses to avoid any association with Frederick is the first important decision that she makes on her own as this enables her to think clearly about her life and future. Because of her consequent choices, she is able to regain some pride in herself, which she had lost during her period of separation from Frederick. Since she is able to make her own decision, her life opens up to new possibilities, and not dominated by her feelings of regret concerning her rejection of Frederick through breaking of their engagement. This circumstance enables her to begin her association with her cousin, William, but while the two of them would have made a perfect couple, she chooses not to accept his suit, because she has no feelings for him.

Don't Tweet Your Brains Out by John Ramsay

John Ramsay, in his speech, shows that while Twitter has been able to ensure that there is the advancement of social good, it also has the potential to ruin the lives of those individuals who use it. This is especially the case where Ramsay makes reference to Jofi Joseph, a White House official who ended up losing his job because he lived a double life on Twitter where he made confidential and at times snide remarks, concerning his bosses, available on the network. The result was that he ended up being fired from his job despite having been among the most promising individuals at the White House who, just before being fired, had been slotted for promotion. Ramsay notes that even his bosses could not believe that such a brilliant man could descend so far from his position as to essentially bring down his career through the temptations brought about by a social network that did no really add any quality to his life. Therefore, the major lesson of the speech is that individuals have to be careful concerning what they choose to make public through social networks because they have the risk of jeopardizing their own lives and careers.

Disarming Iran: A First Step by Barack Obama

Barack Obama’s speech seeking to address the Iranian nuclear program is one that promotes the idea that the United States is ready for negotiations. This is especially the case considering that at the time the speech was being made, Iran had just elected a new president who was more open to negotiations with the West and this speech was a means of showing the world that the United States had also chosen to follow suit. However, Obama also offers a warning to the Iranians that if they do not cooperate fully with the United States, they will face further isolation from the international community through the imposition of sanctions. It is also essential that Obama also made comments concerning the steps that have been taken by the United States and its allies to ensure that the Iranian nuclear program is brought to a halt including the imposition of a broad array of sanctions. Additionally, Obama’s statements, especially concerning the willingness to engage with Iran, contain a message of hope that the United States and Iran will be able to reach a deal that will promote the interests of both nations while containing the nuclear ambitions of the latter.

The Grimm Fairy Tales

When on reads the Grimm Fairy Tales, one comes to the conclusion that Jacob and Wilhelm Grimm are attempting to express their feelings about the world and the contradictions that exist within it. This collection of stories reveal the irony of living the human life as well as those of other creatures, some being happy with their lot in life while others remain sad due to their poverty as well as the tragic events that happen in their lives. The Grimm brothers use their stories to display the true nature of human beings; that nothing is ever permanent and that changes occur once in a while. Throughout their stories, one comes to the realization that there is the extensive use of imagery, symbolism, figurative language, style and tone in relation to the development of the themes involved.

The use of imagery is very extensive in throughout the Grimm Fairy Tales especially when making contrasts between the beauty of the world and the ugliness which is contained within it. This can be seen when, in Tom Thumb, the two men, not caring that their offer to buy Tom from his father would end up separating them. In fact, their only concern seems to be able to make a lot of money using Tom and they do not care at all concerning the feeling of alienation that they would be subjecting him to. The image of Tom as a tiny individual is used to show just how much individuals look down upon the less privileged individuals in society and how they make every attempt to exploit these people. It can be said that the image of Tom Thumb as a little fellow shows that despite his size, he is able to survive in a world that is hostile to his existence as Tom uses his wits to ensure that he is able to survive within it. This image may also be used to show the price which human beings have to pay because of their greed as well as their unthinking ambitions, and this instance can also be perceived in Hans in Luck. The image that is presented of Hans attempting to make his life better as well as to have something useful shows how human ambitions can at times be detrimental instead of helpful because he ends up losing all of his wages as well as all that he attained through barter. While this is the case, in most of the Grimm Fairy Tales, the image of happiness is continuously displayed with very few instances where there is any form of sadness, showing that most of these stories were written for the purpose of entertaining children.

Symbolism is a major style used in the development of the theme of the Grimm Fairy Tales and an excellent example of this, is in The Fisherman and His Wife, where the wife, despite having everything wants more; a symbol of her greed. The fact that she continues to demand more from her husband despite having everything that she needs can be considered to be symbolic of human nature, where we are never satisfied with what we have but continue to aspire for more. In addition, in the story Old Sultan, Sultan the dog can be considered to symbolize unwavering loyalty because despite the favor which the wolf did him in saving his life, Sultan decided to bark at the wolf whenever he comes to steal his master’s sheep. Furthermore, the fight between domestic animals and wild animals in this story shows that despite the poor treatment that the former receive from their masters, they are extremely loyal, while the latter are very cowardly creatures.

The Grimm brothers use figurative language to depict the contrasting characteristics of the characters that they depict in their stories, and a good example of this is that of the talking wolf in Tom Thumb which is an oxymoron used to depict the possible unique ability of Tom to communicate with animals. It is well known that wolves do not have human speech and the Grimm brothers depicting it as talking clearly shows the contrast in a situation where it would normally be impossible for normal conversation to take place. Figurative language can be seen all over the Grimm Fairy Tales and it is used to express the points or instances which can be considered to be the most important in the stories.

The tone of the stories can be considered to range from either being neutral to ironical. This is because of the contrast which the Grimm brothers attempt to make between the different characters in their stories, often depicting extreme good and extreme evil. The tone of the stories can be said to show that the world is a very beautiful place to be born into if one does not mind there not being any happiness all the time. The tone in these stories can be said to bring about quite a number of ironical scenarios, where an environment which is described as being beautiful is infested with evil people such as the thieves in Tom Thumb. In addition, the tone of the stories, such as that of The Elves and the Shoemaker, displays the advantages of doing good because eventually, these good acts are going to be rewarded. It can further be said that the tone of the stories depict the true feelings of their writers about the world and how the situation within it affects the different people living in it. The irony in the stories, such as The Fisherman and his Wife, helps to deliver the writers’ message to the reader as well as fostering an understanding of the subject matter involved.

In conclusion, the use of imagery, symbolism and figurative language in these stories greatly contributes to a greater understanding of the stories. They create situations which are familiar to the reader and they allow him to decipher the true meaning of what the stories is saying. Despite what many people who read it may think, they are not the kind of stories to be taken lightly because they are full of lessons. Instead, they have many lessons to give about the reality of human life in the world and the main message which can be made out of it is that there is not guarantee of happiness in the world and that we should live in it as best as we can.

The Jungle by Upton Sinclair

The Jungle is a novel which depicts the unpleasant conditions within which workers had to work in meat packing plants in order to earn a living. It is a description, in the form of a story, of the experiences which Upton Sinclair had while working undercover for six months in an attempt to gather information on an article he was writing. These working conditions are described so vividly that anyone who reads them might become revolted by the conditions in these meatpacking plants. The novel is most realistic, as it follows the life of an immigrant, Jurgis, and his family who comes to America in an attempt to have a better life. In doing so, he ends up working in a meatpacking plant, where the exact opposite of his dreams come to take place. It must be noted that many of the people who ended up working in these plants under sometimes appalling conditions tended to be immigrants and these had no other choice other that to go on doing the same jobs because they had no education and had little knowledge of English. It was therefore difficult for them to recognize the injustices in their lives and in doing so work towards escaping such injustices. It can be said the The Jungle is an attempt by Sinclair to describe the working conditions of the United States according to his socialist views and a way to push the American public into taking action against such conditions, since they are the ones who are the largest beneficiaries of the labor of the immigrants.

The Jungle is basically a political novel whose main purpose is to propagate the socialist view of the ideal America. It is an attempt by Upton Sinclair to show how workers in the industries in the United States worked under bad conditions to earn a living. One of the main themes that can be found in this novel which are an obvious part of the socialist views of Sinclair is that of exploitation. The factory owners and managers exploit their workers in every way possible and treat them more like slaves than as free human beings. Among the most appalling things which the factory managers do is to sexually abuse some of their female workers. This can be seen when Ona, Jurgis’s wife, is raped by her employer, with the latter threatening that she would lose her job if she does not continue giving him sexual favors. Moreover, many of the factory workers have no job security because they can lose their jobs at any moment at the slightest pretext. An example of this sis when Jurgis ends up losing his job because of an injury sustained while working. While this would not, in normal circumstances, get him to lose his job, in Jurgis’ case, it is different because he is not aware of his rights. When it is seen that he will not be able to be as productive as before, he is fired, and this is done without his being provided with any compensation by his employer. While it is the employer’s responsibility to ensure that the workplace is safe for his employees, this is not the case in The Jungle. Although it is the employer’s fault when accidents take place in the workplace, the employer does not take steps to improve the working conditions. Instead, workers who get injured lose their jobs, and the families of those who lose their lives are not compensated.

One of the main themes that are dealt with in this novel is that of the evils brought about by capitalism and the idea that socialism is its cure. For most of his political life, Upton Sinclair was a dedicated socialist whose actions and works tended to upset many of the mainstream Americans who were dedicated capitalists. While Sinclair did not call out for the abolition of capitalism, he advocated for the inclusion of socialism into the American way of life. This would have ensured that there was a balance in the economy, with the people in the lower classes in society being provided with the opportunity for advancement. Throughout The Jungle, Sinclair shows how the family of Jurgis is destroyed by the cruelties that are brought about by capitalism. Most of the disastrous and tragic things that happen to his family are as a result of their lack of a stable financial base through which to support them. Their faith in the so called American Dream is tarnished as the realities of the capitalist ways that are prevalent in America are felt directly. They turn from a family that is full of hope for a better future, to one which gets involved in some of the most abhorrent practices in society. Sinclair’s narrative is one designed to show that capitalism is evil and that the best way to get rid of it is to adopt communism.

In the novel, the American Dream is considered to be just that, a dream and this is because of the fact that despite moving from Lithuania to America in anticipation of having a better life, this does not happen for Jurgis’ family and instead, they end up living in worse conditions than those in their home country. This can be considered to be a parallel of the life which Upton Sinclair’s family lived due to their relative poverty. While both his parents’ families were of aristocratic backgrounds, his father’s family had been ruined during the American Civil War and despite being in America, they had not managed to regain the wealth and prominence that had once been theirs. Instead, Sinclair’s father had to become a salesman in order to make ends meet, something he barely could because of his alcoholism. Sinclair therefore spent some of his childhood with his wealthy maternal family and because of this, experienced both poverty and wealth. In The Jungle, through the portrayal of the tragedies which are encountered by Jurgis and those around him, Sinclair comes to reveal the ugliness that is capitalism, and his belief that the lot of the poor in America has to be improved for the American Dream to finally come true. It is this theme which he used throughout his political career and despite not being able to gain any elective position; he ended up being influential in other matters.

In conclusion, it can be said that The Jungle is an influential novel whose main endeavor was to prove Sinclair’s view that capitalism was an evil practice. Instead, there is the recommendation for the adoption of socialism as the best way of improving the lives of those who have been deprived in society. Sinclair wanted the American public to see the evils which were brought about by the greed and inhumanity of those who practiced capitalism. The unfortunate working conditions that the poor had to undergo everyday of their lives to make their employers wealthier than they already were is a recurring theme in the novel. While this was the novel’s original intention, the public did not come to view it the way Sinclair did and instead, they came to look upon it as a revelation of the unclean environment through which the food they consumed was processed. In the end, The Jungle failed to represent the real intentions of its author and instead, it became a revelation of the food health issues that were prevalent in the United States. The novel was a representation of the political views of Upton Sinclair but it ended up coming into the service of the larger meat processing plants at the expense of the smaller ones.

Things Fall Apart - Achebe's Criticism of Pre-Colonial Igbo Culture

Things Fall Apart is the story of a society at a crossroads between the traditional way of life, and modernity, as represented by the coming of the white man and the colonial government. It is the story of Okonkwo, the main character, who struggles to attain his position in society and once he achieves it, this position comes to be threatened by the coming of the colonial government. In writing this novel, Chinua Achebe seems to be criticizing some of the traditional ways of the Igbo society through the various characters that are encountered in the novel. Among the things which Achebe looks at are; the killing of hostages for in exchange for a life taken; the definition of masculinity; and finally, the violence displayed by some of the men in Igbo society.

Among the most prominent of the characters in this novel is Okonkwo, whose personality can be said to be thoroughly masculine and who is used as an example from which all the other men in Umuofia are defined. There are instances throughout the novel where Okonkwo is described as doing things which one would associate with masculinity. He is extremely hardworking and ambitious, whose aim is to build his reputation to the highest level that can be attained in his society. While this is the case, he seems to have an extremely difficult relationship with his son, Nwoye, whom he believes not to be manly enough. Okonkwo is, throughout the novel, seen to treat his son quite harshly, even in very trivial situations. This creates a situation where the relationship between these two is extremely strained and there is a rift between them that cannot be filled. As a result, Nwoye eventually chooses to leave his father’s home and join the missionaries, where he eventually comes to find peace. In this case, Achebe seems to be criticizing the aloof nature of Okonkwo in raising his son, believing that if he shows any affection for Nwoye, then the boy will end up being weak and effeminate.

Achebe criticizes the Igbo practice of killing of hostages from another village in revenge in a situation where a person from the said village has taken a life. He uses the case of Ikemefuna to show his disapproval since this boy was brought to Umuofia as a hostage, where he was put in the charge of Okonkwo. Ikemefuna becomes a part of Okonkwo’s household and is, in fact, treated as an older brother by the latter’s children. However, there comes a time when the Oracle declares that Ikemefuna, has to be put to death in revenge for the killing of an Umuofian years earlier. Okonkwo is the one who gives the deathblow with his matchet despite the fact that he had grown extremely fond of the boy. He kills Ikemefuna not because he has to, but because of the fact that he does not want to be seen as weak by his peers. Okonkwo later feels disturbed by this action and goes to speak to his best friend Obierika, who, ever the voice of reason in the novel, tells him that he should not have participated in the killing of Ikemefuna. Obierika further reveals that he himself did not participate in the putting to death of Ikemefuna, and this can be said to be Achebe’s way of showing his disapproval of the practice.

In Things Fall Apart, violence and a quick temper are associated with masculinity and it is something which is associated to all the men within the society. The most prominent of these is Okonkwo, who, despite his being a kindhearted man; he displays his manly authority by ruling his household with a heavy hand, often beating his wives whenever they do anything to offend him. He is also seen to have a particularly bad temper as seen when he almost shoots Ekwefi after she insults his pride. In addition, whereas the other men of Unuofia choose to submit to colonial rule, Okonkwo chooses to retain the past ideals of his society by remaining violent. This eventually leads to a point when he hacks a colonial officer to death with a machete, thinking that this will lead to the men of Umuofia rising against colonial rule. When this does not happen, he realizes that his way of life is gone, and as a result, hangs himself. In this case, Achebe displays his disapproval of the violent ways of the Igbo culture and how such violence might lead to the destruction of the people.