The Ontological Arguments of Anselm, Descartes, and Kant

There have been numerous ontological arguments concerning the existence of God, both in the Western and Eastern philosophical traditions. There have also been considerable criticisms of the ontological arguments that have been made concerning the same concept. In this essay, there will be an analysis of the arguments made by Anselm and Descartes, and the criticism leveled at them by Kant.

One of the most significant ontological arguments that have been made is Anselm’s argument for the existence of God. Anselm makes several important claims to advance his argument, the most significant of which is that God is a being that one that is greater cannot be imagined (Benzmüller and Paleo Automating Gödel's Ontological Proof of God's Existence with Higher-Order Automated Theorem Provers 93). In addition, Anselm argues that God is a being that exists both in the mind and in reality and this is to such an extent that it creates a situation where he is greater than a being that just exists in the mind alone. Moreover, in a situation where God were to exist only in the mind, it would be possible to imagine a being that is greater than God; a situation that would be inconceivable (Benzmüller and Paleo "The Ontological Modal Collapse as a Collapse of the Square of Opposition" 307). Finally, because it is not possible to imagine a being that is greater than the greatest possible being, that is, God, it means that God exists.

In his attempt to prove God’s existence, Descartes sought to revise the argument made by Anselm. He argued that God’s existence can be found out through his nature, in the same way that ideas in geometry can be deduced from the nature of shapes (Descartes 3). He further argued that God is perceived as being a perfect being, in such a way that all perfections derive from him. A consequence is that it leads to a situation where God can be used as a predicate of perfection, and this in such a way that it includes existence. Therefore, if the concept of God did not include existence, it would mean that God would not be the essence of perfection because he would be lacking in perfection (Descartes 24). The notion that the existence of a perfect God does not exist is unintelligible because it is the notion of perfection that essentially means that God actually exists.

Kant, on the other hand, is extremely critical of the ontological argument, stating that the concept of God is one that is based on pure thought. He bases this argument on the belief that the existence of God is one that is essentially outside of the realms of experience and nature. Kant argues that the existence of God cannot be verified through experience, and this is especially considering that to do so would require individuals to actually have a direct experience of God (Proops 11). It is therefore impossible to recognize how God can be verified because there is a lack of experience concerning him. He contrasts the attempt to verify God with that of material concepts, which can be verified through the senses.

Kant’s critique of the ontological arguments can be used as a means of criticizing Anselm’s and Descartes’ versions of the arguments concerning the existence of God. This is especially the case considering that the arguments made by Anselm and Descartes are based on pure reason to such an extent that they do not seek out any evidence concerning the existence of God. Kant, on the other hand, argues that proof existence can only be achieved through the senses, meaning that it is essential to make sure that a concept is verifiable before proof of existence is given. Kant, therefore, seems to promote the idea that it is essential for sensory proof to be achieved before proof of existence can be verified.

In conclusion, Kant’s critique of the ontological argument concerning the existence of God is incorrect. This is because it fails to consider that there are certain elements that exist without any sensory recognition of their existence. Furthermore, Kant’s argument is one that there are certain concepts that exist both in the mind and reality, as stated by Anselm, that do not rely on the senses in order to be verified. Rather, conclusions concerning the existence of certain beings or entities can be made through the use of common sense, which relies on the observance of the world and the diversity of elements within it. Therefore, while Kant’s argument is essentially based on the premise that something cannot exist without the presence of sensory confirmation, it fails to consider that there are other elements that defy the senses, and that they are based solely on reason.

 

 

 

 

 

Works Cited

Automating Gödel's Ontological Proof of God's Existence with Higher-Order Automated Theorem Provers. Proceedings of the Twenty-first European Conference on Artificial Intelligence. 2014. IOS Press. Print.

Benzmüller, Christoph, and Bruno Woltzenlogel Paleo. "The Ontological Modal Collapse as a Collapse of the Square of Opposition." The Square of Opposition: A Cornerstone of Thought. Springer, 2017. 307-13. Print.

Descartes, René. "Meditations on First Philosophy." Central Works of Philosophy  (2015): 1 - 48. Print.

Proops, Ian. "Kant on the Ontological Argument." Noûs 49.1 (2015): 1-27. Print.

Tannen and Baldwin - A comparison

Language is one of the most powerful attributes of a society or culture because it works to ensure that there is a definition of these concepts in such a way that allows individuals to come to terms with them. This is especially the case considering that it is a powerful tool in making sure that there is the establishment of the unique identities of those individuals that make use of it. In the contemporary world, language has come to define the way that individuals perceive themselves within their own societies. This situation is extremely important in the essays “Wears jump suit. Sensible shoes. Uses husband’s last name” and “If Black English isn’t a language, then tell me, what is?” by Deborah Tannen and James Baldwin respectively. In this paper, a comparative analysis of Tannen’s and Baldwin’s essays will be conducted in order to show how language is used to articulate social realities, enforce social dominance, and create the social divide based on gender and class.

One of the most significant aspects of these two essays is that they promote the idea that language is used to give meaning to social realities. This is especially the case considering that language enables individuals to show their preferences as well as their backgrounds. Baldwin gives the example of the manner through which French, despite being considered a unified language, is actually expressed differently in various French speaking regions such as Paris, Marseilles, or Quebec (Baldwin 5). The manner through which individuals speak the language indicates the region from which they hail, and while some of the words that are used may be similar; their meanings in the different regions may be quite different. Tannen furthers this idea through the use of the term “marked”, which she defines as the manner through which language alters the meaning of a word through the addition of a linguistic particle that alone does not have a meaning (Tannen). This is an extremely important aspect of both these essays because they show that language can be manipulated by its users in such a way that it is able to convey meaning only to those who make use of it on a daily basis, within a community or region, rather than for all users of the language. The result is that some users of a language can create entirely new meanings for some of the words within it in order to convey a particular meaning to them but not to other users of the language.

Moreover, language is made use of to enforce the dominance of one part of society over the other. This is especially articulated by Baldwin, who analyses the legitimacy of Black English in the United States. He suggests that Black English has essentially not been given the recognition it deserves because to do so would force the dominant white community to come to terms with its own past. In addition, Baldwin considers Black English to be a language that has developed over time as a reflection of the unique experiences that the black population had to undergo from the period of slavery (Baldwin 6). Tannen also addresses the manner through which language is used to enforce gender and class in the context of male dominance. She provides the example of the manner through which women in social settings are perceived, especially when it comes to the way that they dress and the message that it sends to their male counterparts (Tannen). Tannen considers such situations to enforce male dominance because men are not always required to take the time and effort as women to make themselves presentable. Instead, they can remain unmarked in such a way that there is nothing unique about their appearance. Tannen also suggests that the English language is one that is enforces male dominance, as seen in the way that words are compartmentalized as either male or female, as seen through the endings of words with ess or ette being considered female (Tannen).

In conclusion, Tannen’s and Baldwin’s essays have shown that language can be used in a diversity of contexts to enforce social expectations and express the unique backgrounds of its users. These essays are extremely relevant to the understanding of the various ways through which language can be used in a diversity of contexts to establish meanings for its users. Through the various examples that are provided within them, these essays help their readers come to terms with their social realities, both positive and negative, and opens their eyes to those situations that they would otherwise not have noticed, or have taken for granted.

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

 

Works Cited

Baldwin, James. "If Black English Isn't a Language, Then Tell Me, What Is?" The Black Scholar 27.1 (1997): 5-6. Print.

Tannen, Deborah. "Wears Jump Suit. Sensible Shoes. Uses Husband’s Last Name." The New York Times Magazine 20 (1993). Print.

Arthur Conan Doyle's The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans and Herbert George Wells' The Stolen Bacillus

 

The application of the scientific method is one of the most significant ways through which to ensure that there is the development of accurate measurements and deductions. It creates a situation where there is a greater understanding of the world around us while at the same time promoting the advancement of knowledge that ensures the acceptance of the facts that are presented at a given time. The use of the scientific method is one that is extremely relevant when it comes to matters concerning investigations, as seen in detective stories. They result in the creation of means through which entire mysteries, which were believed to be hidden, are revealed to the readers in such a way that it is backed up with convincing evidence. The use of deduction is an important aspect of the scientific method because it helps the investigator use the available evidence to come up with conclusions concerning the various aspects of an investigation. Using this method in mystery or detective stories is important because it takes the reader through various events that lead to unexpected results. In this paper, there will be an analysis of the manner through which the scientific method is important in the attainment of answers in the mysteries within two stories, The Stolen Bacillus and The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans.

The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans is a murder mystery that is solved by the famous character, Sherlock Holmes. It involves the theft of some extremely important documents that are essentially plans for the construction of a submarine, and the murder of an individual, Arthur Cadogan West, who is believed to be the one behind the theft (Doyle 3). However, Holmes is determined to solve the mystery through the use of scientific methods and makes deductions concerning the motives that Cadogan West might have had in having some of the stolen documents in his possession at the time of his death. Through the use of scientific methods, where the evidence that is found at various locations is made use of to come to some extremely useful conclusions, it becomes possible to discover the real culprit behind the theft as well as the murder of Cadogan West. In the end, through the use of deductions based on the evidence at hand, Holmes uncovers the culprit as Colonel Valentine Walter, the brother of Sir James Walter, who had been in charge of the stolen plans (Doyle 15). Therefore, the scientific method is an important aspect of the solution to the mystery involved in the story because it allows Holmes to make use of the evidence at hand to not only make conclusions, but also educated guesses, concerning where the case is heading. A consequence is that the use of this method is essential in solving the mysteries of some events that happen in daily life and this in such a way that it promotes the idea that nothing is ever as it seems.

The Stolen Bacillus is another story that involves the use of the scientific method, and this is especially considering that one of the main characters within it is a scientist. It is a story that, despite describing a serious matter is full of comical moments. It describes the scientist receiving a visitor who is interested in a particular vial that the scientist is working on. The scientist, realizing the interest that his visitor has in the vial goes to great lengths to explain how such a vial that is filled with the bacteria that causes bacteria has the power of contaminating an entire water source (Wells 1). When the scientist is called away by his wife for a moment, the visitor takes the vial and declares his intention to leave. It is only after he has left that the scientist realizes that the vial has been stolen and goes after the visitor. The scientist follows the visitor in a cab, with the visitor having taken the same mode of transport. The vial in the visitor’s possession ends up breaking and the latter consumes what remains of the contents in order to become a human vector, with the hope that it will make him famous. However, it is later discovered, through the scientist, that the vial did not contain cholera but was rather a bacillus extraction that if consumed made the subject blue either completely or in patches (Wells 4). Therefore, the visitor, who is revealed to be an anarchist, because of his failure to carefully consider the contents of the vial assumed that it contained the cholera bacillus. The story, which is essentially about the scientific method, ends with a comic turn because it leaves it to the reader to imagine the rude shock that the visitor was going to get.

In conclusion, these two stories, while considerably different in setting, reveal the importance of the scientific method. They suggest that science is an important tool when it comes to the advancement of human society as a whole. It is an extremely neutral subject which can be used in making sure that there is the creation of a better world for all people. The neutrality of science can be understood in such a way that it depends on the individuals that use it. Therefore, if an individual has malicious intentions, like the anarchist in The Stolen Bacillus, the products of the scientific method can end up being used for evil purposes. However, when used by benevolent individuals, in the way that Sherlock Holmes uses it to investigate the mystery in The Adventure of the Bruce-Partington Plans, the scientific method can bring about good results. Consequently, science should not be looked upon as being either good or evil but as a neutral subject that has great potential in making the world a better place if used wisely. The two stories discussed above are examples of the different ways through which the scientific method can be used and they provide lessons the importance of the scientific approach when it comes to finding solutions to problems.

Racial Representation in Langston Hughes' Mulatto and George L. Aiken's Uncle Tom's Cabin

 

The representation of race in various plays is important in showing the manner through which individuals in American society viewed one another. This is especially the case in plays that are set in the era of slavery, showing the manner through which the various characters see the members of other races, such as the way that whites view blacks, and the justification for the institution of slavery. Race and slavery are institutions that are tied together in such a way that promotes the idea that it is the right of one race to enslave the other; a situation that essentially leads to the conflict that is seen in plays such as Mulatto: A Play of the Deep South, and Uncle Tom’s Cabin. In this paper, there will be an analysis of the representation of race in these two plays and the manner through which the various characters within them deal with the issue of race and racial relations.

One of the most fundamental aspects of these plays is that they handle such issues as the statuses of mulattoes and the children of slaves. Mulattoes are depicted as being stuck in a world where they are neither white nor black but are instead in a confused state where they are not able to decide where they belong. This depiction is seen in Mulatto, where the character of Robert, who is the son of a white plantation owner and his slave, feels that he should not be treated any differently from the white people in society. A result is that there are constant warnings concerning the potential tragedy that Robert might bring not only to himself, but also to other slaves in the region (Hughes). In addition, Uncle Tom’s Cabin seeks to show the fate that awaits the children of slaves, especially in situations where their masters believe that they have to sell them. One of the first incidents that take place in the play is where Eliza escapes with her son in order to avoid having her son sold by her owners because the latter need the money. Furthermore, later in the play, the character of Cassy is introduced, and she is an individual who was separated from her son and daughter after they were sold. Her story is a tragic one because she ends up in a situation where she makes the terrible decision to kill her third child rather than get separated from it (Aiken). Therefore, the fate of the children of slaves seems to be doomed to slavery, and this is to such an extent that they are often separated from their parents.

Among the most significant aspects of the representation of race in these plays is the constant depiction, by some characters, of blacks being inferior to their white counterparts. This is especially the case in Uncle Tom’s Cabin where Uncle Tom is forced into situations that would daunt any other human being. For example, despite having a wife and children of his own, his owners do not hesitate to separate him from them when they sell him to a new owner. In addition, Uncle Tom is forced into a situation where he is tortured by Legree, his new owner, who is hostile to him because Tom will not submit to his will (Aiken). The brutality that Legree delivers on Uncle Tom is based on racial prejudice and this is to such an extent that it eventually causes the death of Uncle Tom. In Mulatto, Norwood is criticized by members of his society for having a relationship with his slave, with one, Higgins, going as far as suggesting that Norwood gets married (Hughes). He suggests marriage because of the belief that the presence of a white woman on the plantation will help Norwood not to treat his slaves so softly. This is an important indication of the belief that blacks are inferior because Norwood’s relationship with his slave, Cora, is seen as scandalous to such an extent that Norwood is torn between acknowledging his children and seeking to ensure that they are forced into becoming more submissive.

The humanity of the black people is depicted in both plays, especially considering that some of their white counterparts look upon them as little more than animals. In Mulatto, there is an attempt to depict the humanity of the characters, especially Cora and her son Robert. Robert is an individual who is proud of his white heritage and believes that it is a means of ensuring that his rights as a human being are recognized. Furthermore, he is an individual who, unlike his siblings, seeks to ensure that Norwood acknowledges him as his son, despite the scandal that it might cause as a result (Hughes). In the course of the play, Cora, following Robert’s murder of Norwood, is shown to have a sense of bitterness because Norwood did not acknowledge any of their children together. In Uncle Tom, there is also an attempt to depict the humanity of blacks through a diversity of methods, including showing the manner through which Eliza makes the decision to escape slavery because she does not want to be separated from her son (Aiken). In addition, Uncle Tom is shown to be a deeply religious individual, whose faith is the one thing that ensures that he is able to endure a life in slavery. His close friendship with Eva, a white girl, because of their common interest in their faith as Christians is also essential in promoting an image of Uncle Tom as being a very human individual. Also, it is Uncle Tom who encourages Cassy to escape their enslavement by Legree, which is an extremely brutal experience.

The theme of desire for freedom is another fundamental aspect of the two plays because it is essential to the understanding of the representation of race. Unlike their white counterparts, who are essentially born free, the black people or those with black blood are born into slavery because of their racial status. In Uncle Tom, the escapes made by Eliza, and later by Cassy, are based on a desire to achieve the same freedoms that are exercised by the free members of society. A consequence is that these characters seek refuge in a country where it would be declared free, that is, Canada (Aiken). This was at a period in history when the British had declared slavery illegal in their empire, meaning that it was a safe place for them to start their lives as free individuals. In Mulatto, Robert is seen to be an individual that is determined to attain his freedom, and this is based on his belief that because he is Norwood’s son, he has the right to be free. This is a fundamental aspect of the play because it depicts an individual who is able to make sure that he not only accepts who he is, but is determined to ensure that society accepts him as well, despite his having a black mother who is also a slave. Robert refuses to accept the reality of his enslavement and is determined to fight against it in order to become free.

In conclusion, Mulatto and Uncle Tom’s Cabin are essential plays when it comes to the representation of race. They suggest that race is made use of to enforce a social order where one race establishes dominance over another. A consequence is that there is both conflict and resistance on the part of some individuals as they seek to overcome the burdens established by the highly oppressive social order.

In The Blood

 

In the Blood is a play by Suzan-Lori Parker that focuses on the life of Hester, a woman who lives in poverty and has to struggle every day in order to make ends meet. This is a woman who has five children that have different fathers who she believes have to be supported well in order to have better lives. It is also important for Hester that she advances the lives of her children so that they can have the opportunities that she did not have. She seeks to make sure that she gets the help of her children’s fathers, but this ends up not being possible and she is disappointed. This play shows the manner through which Hester is led by her frustration as well as illiteracy and sense of shame into killing her oldest son.

One of the most fundamental subjects that are discussed in the play is Hester’s illiteracy. While she is an individual that cannot read, she is determined to make sure that her children achieve a level of literacy. However, it is essential to understand that for Hester, her illiteracy must have been an extremely frustrating factor because she was not able to achieve the qualifications that would have made her life better. In addition, she seems to be a highly empathetic individual that seeks to ensure that those around her receive happiness, and forget their troubles. This is the case with the manner through which she ends up giving herself to men in order to console them when having a bad time in their lives.

However, her lack of literacy can be considered a reason behind her eventual murder of her son. When someone scrawls the word ‘slut’ close to where Hester and her family live under a bridge, she is not in a position to read it. Her son, Jabber, who is more literate than his mother, makes the decision not to tell his mother what it means. When Hester learns the truth about the scrawl, she must feel all her frustrations build up until she cannot take it anymore. Her bludgeoning Jabber to death is a means of taking her frustrations out on him to such an extent that she does not think rationally. She is instead governed by her baser emotions which make it extremely difficult for her to realize the consequences of her actions until it is too late.

In conclusion, Hester is an individual that is governed by her emotions to such an extent that she ends up taking an action that she regrets. Her life is essentially a tragedy because it is one that she has to struggle every day in order to make it work. She is involved in acts that are considered loose by other members of her society and this it to such an extent that she is looked upon as a person at the sidelines of the community in which she lives. Therefore, her killing of her son, despite its being deplorable, can be considered a means through which she fights back against the humiliation she feels for being called a slut.