Blaise Pascal, Immanuel Kant, and William James on God

 

Among the most important common beliefs that were held by Blaise Pascal, Immanuel Kant, and William James is that we cannot know or prove that God exists. However, these individuals also offered justifications for their decision to believe that God exists. In this paper, there will be a comparison and contrast of their various stances in order to determine the individual that offers the best and worst justification for the belief that God exists.

One of the most significant arguments made by Pascal is based on the Expectation Rule, which essentially suggests that no matter the smallness of the probability that God exists, as long as it is in the positive, it will ensure that there is the advancement of the belief that God exists over the one that suggests the opposite. Having reason to believe that the proposition that God exists is true ensures that there is the promotion of means to bring about the rational belief of that existence. This is a situation which can ensure that there is precedence over any evidential strength to the contrary because it is based on the assumption that because an entity is believed to exist in a positive manner, it is the rational action to state that it is true. Pascal makes use of the rational argument to promote his belief in the existence of God and this is to such an extent that he considers the formation of the belief that God exists is the rational thing to do even in a situation where there is little likelihood of this circumstance being true. His argument considers that having a belief in a proposition is important because it allows the proposition to take precedence over any evidential strength even though it lacks any evidential support.

James, on the other hand, is of the opinion that belief should be based on an act of faith rather than seeking out evidence concerning the belief. He proposes that one of the most important strategies that can be employed in the process of making sure that there is the advancement of belief is to seek out the truth by any means possible, even at the risk of error. James is extremely critical of such ideas as Clifford’s Rule, which advance the need to ensure that there is the avoidance of all error in the process of finding truths. Instead, he advances the idea that it is essential to consider that errors are inevitable in the process of finding truths because the avoidance of errors can lead to a situation where there is a risk that there will be a loss of certain truths. He further suggests that there are certain instances where facts cannot be developed at all unless there is an element of faith in the process. James provides the example of the manner through which social organisms coexist as a means of showing that belief is a strong factor in the functioning of any social institution. This is especially considering that individuals often undertake their own duties in the society in the faith that others are doing the same. A consequence is that faith remains a prerequisite when it comes to functioning in any cooperative environment.

Kant sees faith as being a means through which it becomes possible for individuals to engage with their will, and this is unlike knowledge. Having faith is a process that involves the commitment of individuals to morality and this is to such an extent that it not only involves the affirmation of the commitment, but also a free act of faith that ensures that individuals have bound themselves to morality. Kant sees morality as inevitably leading to religion and that it is essential that the latter exists because it allows individuals to have access to morality. This stance can be interpreted as Kant’s belief that moral law depends wholly on the existence of God, and that religion serves the function of making sure that individuals stick to a strict moral code. Therefore, in this situation, religion seems to exist as a means of making sure that individuals are bound to morality, and this is in such a way that one cannot exist without the other; essentially affirming the existence of God.

In conclusion, the comparison of the beliefs of the philosophers above concerning the existence of God shows that Kant’s justification is the most convincing. This is because he promotes the idea that morality cannot exist without religion, and that they both rely on one another to function effectively. A belief in the existence of a Supreme Being is important because it encourages individuals to ensure that they undertake to observe morality because without such a belief, they will not have the motivation to coexist with others peacefully. Pascal’s wager, on the other hand, can be considered the least convincing because he does not offer any substantial evidence other than one based on belief, which ensures that it is the easiest argument for the existence of God that can be challenged.

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight

 

Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a poem that seeks to advance the theme of realistic human expectations. This is especially considering that it promotes an image of characters that are based on the medieval ideal of chivalry as well as knightly valor. It also shows the hypocrisy of the various characters in such a way that despite claiming to hold onto their ideals, they are actually quite human and they seek to preserve their lives at all costs, even being tempted to put aside their honor for the sake of undertaking human actions. Sir Gawain and the Green Knight begins in the ideal setting of King Arthur's court where everyone is young, good-looking, and the best at everything. However, because of his experiences, Sir Gawain learns that such perfection is an unrealistic expectation for any human being.

The theme of perfection is a prominent one in the poem, and this is to such an extent that it seeks to show the manner through which individuals are constantly tested when it comes to committing to their ideals. Sir Gawain is shown to be an individual that has a deep commitment to the characteristics that are prized in Arthur’s court. His commitment to chivalry is, however, considerably tested because despite his ideals, he is still human. This is especially the case where Gawain is tempted to let go of his chivalrous ideals, which are essentially considered perfection, and give in to his human instincts. The manner through which he relates to the Green Knight is a prominent example of the test to his perfection, because the Green Knight seems to have an agenda to ensure that Gawain realizes that he is only human. Furthermore, despite being an individual that is considered perfect and is chivalrous, Gawain is sorely tempted to give in to his human needs and commit adultery with the attractive wife of his host. Thus, from the very beginning of the poem, Gawain is shown to be an individual who has to constantly struggle to uphold his perfect image through denying that he is essentially human with the needs that are associated with it. Therefore, Gawain makes use of the code of chivalry as well as religion as a wall against those characteristics that essentially make him human; instead seeking to maintain the façade of perfection.

Sir Gawain’s struggles towards maintaining his perfection is one that is constantly tested during his stay with his hosts. His struggle is especially exemplified in the nights that he spends with his hosts, where the host’s wife attempts to seduce him on two consecutive nights. However, Gawain struggles to maintain his perfect image by making the decision to kiss his host instead. Gawain makes the decision to kiss his host because to do so would be considered innocent while to have an affair with his host’s wife would be looked upon as a betrayal that would have tarnished his perfect image (Greenblatt & Christ, 2012). Therefore, the actions undertaken by Gawain can be considered his attempt to ensure that he maintains his perfection that is exemplified through his holding onto the code of chivalry. The struggles through which Gawain undergoes to overcome the temptation of being with his host’s wife show that despite his seeming perfection, he is still a human being, with human needs and wants. He is in a constant struggle to ensure that he holds on to his chivalrous nature; a situation that essentially displays his humanity because if he really were perfect, he would not have been tempted in the first place. By seeking to maintain a perfect image, Gawain is essentially denying his humanity and this makes him into an individual that seems aloof. This experience can be considered an essential aspect of making sure that Gawain begins to come to terms with his humanity and the manner through which it is the natural state rather than an alien one.

One of the most significant lessons learned from the experiences of Sir Gawain is that it is essential for individuals to embrace their humanity, with all its imperfections. While Gawain can be commended for seeking to do right by all those individuals that rely on him, he is still human, with all the fears that come with it. Gawain is portrayed as an honest man who undertakes the action of facing the Green Knight with the knowledge that it might end up taking his life. Concerning the situation that he faces, it is stated that “True men pay what they owe,” (Greenblatt & Christ, 2012, p. line 444). Despite being honest with his host concerning the two kisses from his host’s wife, Gawain hides information concerning the green girdle that the latter gave him in order to preserve his life when he faces the Green Knight. Hiding information concerning the green girdle from the Green Knight is a sign of his humanity and this is to such an extent that he essentially seeks to preserve his life despite always seeking to maintain his chivalrous code. His experiences essentially show him to be human, with the sense of self-preservation that makes him want to protect himself against the possibility of death. It is because of this realization that the Green Knight, despite being in the right to do with his as he wants, makes the decision to let Sir Gawain live. It is an acknowledgement that Gawain has come to terms with his humanity and that perfection is an unrealistic aim when it comes to being human.

In conclusion, Sir Gawain and the Green Knight is a poem that seeks to show that perfection is not a human characteristic. The tests and experiences that Gawain undergoes are reminiscent of what all humans undergo on a daily basis as they struggle to ensure that they advance towards perfection and seek to achieve their full potential through maintaining values that they believe are essential for order to prevail within their own societies. However, the achievement of perfection is only a façade because human beings are by nature imperfect and cannot attain perfection.

Marx and Durkheim on Happiness

 

Social indicators as well as structural processes are some of the structural indicators that are used for in the process of finding out if individuals are happy. These are used to ensure that there is an understanding of the way that people in society end up attaining happiness. Structural indicators have been considered to be highly subjective and this is in such a way that the theories that have been developed concerning them have sought to prove that the concept of happiness is a human invention than an actual real feeling. In the article, the example of Marx and Durkheim is made use of in such a way that they show the manner through which happiness is used to establish the control of one group over another in society (Cieslik, 2015). In the theories developed by these two scholars, happiness has been developed because of the need to enforce consumerism in society, while at the same time helping in keeping negative social realities at bay. The argument made by Marx concerning the presence of religion is an important indicator of how superficial the concept of happiness really is.

Symbolic interactionism is a perspective that seeks to develop an understanding of the way that the relationships of individuals in society are developed and sustained. This is the case when it comes to the concept of happiness, which if viewed from a symbolic interactionist perspective, involves the enforcement of power relations. A diversity of the definitions of happiness in the contemporary world has come to be associated with a consumerist culture and has come to be accepted as one of the most important social values. Therefore, the goals of a considerable number of members of society are based on the belief that happiness is tied to the attainment of material wellbeing. Happiness is seen as the ultimate goal and individuals pursue it for their entire lives in the hope of finally attaining it. It is also a means through which the relationships between various individuals in society are established and maintained.

A majority of the interviewees cited their parents as being among the most influential individuals when it came to determining their understanding of happiness. This is because parents put a lot of pressure on them to adopt what they believed to be the most ideal form of happiness (Cieslik, 2015). However, the interviewees also stated that a diversity of other factors that informed their beliefs concerning happiness, including their own personal notions concerning what it means and how they can attain it. A consequence is that social factors have an influence on how individuals come to determine what it means to be happy.

One of the arguments made by Cieslik is that happiness is both felt and done. Doing happiness is a process that involves individuals seeking to ensure that they are able to undertake actions that will bring them the most happiness. It is often associated with wellbeing because it involves individuals seeking to ensure that they are able to have friends or employment that gives them the most satisfaction. The result is that the sense of wellbeing has come to be associated with happiness, and this can be considered a motivation behind individuals seeking to ensure that they do actions that will provide them with the greatest pleasure.

The Concept of Happiness

 

There are a number of structural indicators that are used to identify if individuals are happy. These essentially include social indicators and structural processes which are used as a means of understanding the manner through which individuals are able to attain happiness. They are highly subjective to such an extent that they lead to a situation where some theories have developed that promotes the idea that happiness is superficial. Marx and Durkheim, for example, developed theories that suggest that happiness is superficial and that it is based on the consumerist culture that creates a false illusion or the promise of happiness (Cieslik, 2015). A consequence is that happiness is seen as a concept that seeks to hide the reality of the lives of individuals, such as the concept of suffering and how it comes about.

From a symbolic interactionist perspective, happiness is essentially a means through which to ensure that the power relations in society are enforced. This is especially the case considering that a considerable number of definitions of happiness have come to be associated with consumerism, and this has become an essential part of accepted social behavior. The achievement of happiness is one of the biggest goals of members of society because it has come to be associated with wellbeing. From a symbolic interactionist perspective, happiness is closely tied to wellbeing and it is the reason behind the establishment of relations between individuals across society (Cieslik, 2015). The pursuit of happiness is what has essentially become the means through which the current social order has been established.

For a considerable number of interviewees, their ideal form of happiness was one where they were allowed to pursue their own happiness. However, they were more likely than not to encounter pressure from their parents, who often sought to ensure that their children adopted their own notions of the ideal forms of happiness (Cieslik, 2015). A consequence was that the interviewees’ notions of happiness were formed from a diversity of influences, not only from their home environments, but also from other factors that were considered important in their lives. These were especially the case when it came to the way that they identified themselves and their own notions of what happiness actually meant for them.

Cieslik argues that individuals both feel and do happiness, and this is a concept that promotes the idea that human beings aim at attaining happiness. Feeling happiness involves getting pleasure out of an action that an individual has undertaken or has had undertaken for them. Doing happiness, on the other hand, involves actively seeking out activities that are aimed at bringing about the feeling of happiness. Human beings often go about their lives undertaking activities that they believe will bring them the most happiness such as having friends, jobs, and living in environments that will ensure that they are made happy. A consequence of this situation is that individuals form relationships that are narrowly focused on how other people can be able to satisfy the sense of wellbeing that is often associated with happiness.

Emotional Poverty in Outcry by Michelangelo Antonioni

 Emotional poverty is one of the most significant themes in Outcry, by Michelangelo Antonioni. It represents a considerable part of the story because it involves almost all the characters within it as well as the actions of individuals that essentially lead to the dehumanization of others, tapping into the Italian neorealist film tradition (Goldman 9). The emotional poverty in the film is essential in the understanding of the manner through which the changing world has come to affect the lives of all the characters involved, and this is in such a way that it promotes a situation where these individuals can be viewed as losing touch with the emotional connection that they had with one another as human beings. The case of Aldo, the main character, and his relationships with the women in his life, is significant because it is the main focus of the emotional poverty that is prominent throughout the entire plot. In this paper, there will be an analysis of emotional poverty in Outcry, and the manner through which it affects the lives of the various characters within it. The analysis will focus mainly on the effects of emotional poverty, especially on the psychological effects it has on the various characters.

One of the most significant aspects human interactions is that individuals are able to express their feelings towards one another. This is especially the case in situations where individuals are very close to one another to such an extent that they are not only able to interact at a personal level, but are also able to understand the feelings that each one of them has (Steimatsky 193). However, in a situation where there is emotional poverty, it is often difficult for individuals to express themselves effectively because they have not developed to do so. Under such circumstances, they are not only misunderstood, but they also end up driving the people that they love away. The inability to ensure that they achieve a level of emotional connection with those in their lives makes it extremely difficult to ensure that there is the development of stable relationships. Instead, it leads to the bottling up of emotions that essentially end up with disastrous results. In Outcry, the character of Aldo is one that can be viewed as suffering from emotional poverty, which is manifested in his relationship with Irma. He takes their relationship for granted, because Irma has been his mistress for years and they have a daughter. When they find out that Irma’s husband, who had gone to Australia, is dead, he takes it for granted that they will get married and legitimize their daughter. Aldo, because of his emotional poverty, does not consider Irma’s feelings, and the result is that Irma tells him that she loves another (Chatman 42). Aldo’s emotional poverty can be blamed for the manner through which he reacts to the news because there is a failure on his part to consider that their affair was actually more physical than emotional. Moreover, Aldo seems to have fallen in love with Irma, and her revelation makes him have a negative reaction which forces him to move out of their home.

One of the most significant issues concerning emotional poverty is that it leads individuals into situations where they are not able to express themselves to such an extent that they react violently to small incidents. This is because these individuals are not able to ensure that they hold onto their anger and act in a manner that is reasonable. There are two notable instances in Outcry, where Aldo essentially lashes out against those he really cares about either because he feels hurt, or because of worry (Chatman 42). One such incident is where he slaps Irma because he believes that she does not love him as much as he loves her. Another incident occurs where his daughter, Rosina is almost hit by a vehicle, and rather than taking the time to console her following such a near death experience, slaps her. Aldo is depicted as an individual who lacks the emotions necessary to ensure that he promotes the interests of those people in his life through the development of an emotional connection. Instead, he is shown to be one that ends up in situations where rather than showing his emotional side through affection for those he loves, he reacts violently when things do not seem to go his way or to cover up his worry. Aldo’s failure to develop a strong emotional bond with his daughter as well as with Irma and the other women in his life can be considered a consequence of his emotional poverty. His lack of ability to express his emotions effectively essentially leaves him handicapped when it comes to his personal relationships to such an extent that he is unable to cope with the issues that come up in his life.

Incidents of emotional poverty can also be seen in the relationship between Aldo and the prostitute he meets following his relationship with Virginia. The prostitute is an individual who has essentially been dehumanized and made emotionally deficient through her experiences in life. She has come to lose value in her body, and only sees it as a tool to be used to ensure that her needs are satisfied. When she begins her relationship with Aldo, things seem to be going well until such a time as both of them suffer from hunger. She ends up in a situation where she is willing to sell her body to ensure that she gets something to eat. She refuses to listen to the pleas made to her by Aldo; essentially showing him that she does not really care for him and that at the moment, food is what is important to her. This is an incident that essentially depicts two emotionally deficient characters coming together, with the prostitute so far lacking in it because of the dehumanization of her profession that she ends up making decisions out of desperation (Orr 8). Aldo, on the other hand, is an individual that fails to consider that life is harder than it looks. In the case of his comrade, she has no other way to make a living apart from selling her body to make ends meet. Therefore, despite his emotional poverty, Aldo is depicted as an individual who feels deeply and when he attempts to persuade the prostitute not to sell her body, it provides a rare insight into his emotional vulnerability, because it seems that he cannot understand why she would do such a thing as she intends. The dehumanizing nature of emotional poverty is shown firsthand in the relationship between these two individuals.

A significant aspect of the emotional poverty found in this film is that the actions of some characters are dictated by their feelings of desperation and alienation. The example of the way that the prostitute behaves when confronted by hunger can be considered an aspect of desperation that she faces because she seeks to ensure that she gains sustenance through offering her body to one who would provide her with food. The same is the case with Aldo, who because of his feelings of alienation and desperation is incapable of expressing his emotions appropriately (Gallese 202). Instead, despite his initial action of taking his daughter Rosina, from her mother, he ends up sending her back after being convinced to do so by Virginia, his new lover. He fails to offer the paternal love that is essential to encourage a close relationship between a father and child, and is instead made to undertake an action that is essentially alien in a parent-child relationship. Sending Rosina back to her mother is an action which can also be considered to be based on the sense of alienation that Aldo has because he has essentially been rejected by a woman with whom he has a daughter and has had a long-term relationship with.

Aldo’s failure to express his love towards his daughter can be considered a result of his emotional poverty. Rather than appreciating her presence in his life not only as his daughter but also as the fruit of his love with Irma, he treats her as an individual that has no feelings of her own. The result of such incidents is that the film ends up essentially being sad (Jubis 43). The way that he lashes out at her following her near accident is quite brutal because she is not only still a child, but she needs the love of a father to reassure her of her safety. The decision to send her back to her mother is another situation that shows the difficulty that Aldo has in expressing his love for his daughter. This is after she finds him in a compromising position with Virginia, his new lover, and rather than seeking to explain to her about what she saw, Aldo makes the decision to follow Virginia’s advice and sends Rosina away. By doing so, he fails to consider that his daughter needs him in her life and that he has a role in catering for her welfare. The emotional poverty in Aldo makes him fail to recognize his daughter’s importance in his life and his in hers.

Emotional poverty has the potential of making individuals not to recognize the good things that they have in their lives because of being unsatisfied with their status. Such incidents lead to situations where these individuals are not able to make themselves appreciate life and truly become happy. The case of Aldo can be used as an example to illustrate this point because he is an individual who, despite having the love and appreciation that are needed to make him happy, he essentially sabotages everything, leading to a life of misery and despair (Davies et al.). He fails to realize that his daughter, Rosina, is one of the best things to have happened to him and fails to reciprocate the love that she gives him. The same is the case with his relationship with Elvia, his former girlfriend, who is depicted as having a genuine love for him. She essentially offers Aldo an opportunity to attain lasting happiness with her but he instead makes the decision to leave. Aldo does not realize the potential for happiness that he has and instead essentially sabotages everything because of his love for Irma, which cannot be reciprocated because she has moved on.

The rapid urbanization that is depicted in the film is symbolic of the manner through which Aldo is left behind because of his emotional poverty. He is unable to cope with the new situation following his coming back to his hometown and finding considerable changes have taken place, including the planned destruction of his former workplace (Davies et al.). Furthermore, he finds that Irma has moved on with her life and now has a baby; essentially showing that she is happy with her life as it is. This situation can be considered a manifestation of the emotional fulfillment that she has in her life because of her appreciation of what she has. Aldo, on the other hand, has been left out and cannot share in Irma’s new life because he never appreciated her in the first place and took her for granted instead. Aldo’s sense of despair is a manifestation of his coming to terms with his emotional poverty and this is to such an extent that it leads to a situation where he ends up committing suicide (Chatman 42; Baso 58). The suicide is symbolic of his having lost everything because of his emotional poverty, and his failure to appreciate the people in his life.

In conclusion, Outcry is a film that is full of depictions of incidents of emotional poverty among some of the characters, with all of them having a connection with Aldo, the main character. The discussion above has made an analysis of emotional poverty in the film, and the manner through which it affects the lives of the various characters within it. The analysis has focused mainly on the effects of emotional poverty and the way that it has come to bring about the failure of the protagonist, Aldo, to ensure that he has a more fulfilling relationship with the women in his life.

Works Cited

Baso, Giulia. "Practices of Mediation and Phenomena of Contamination in the Films of M. Antonioni and A. Egoyan."  (2014). Print.

Chatman, Seymour Benjamin. Antonioni, or, the Surface of the World. Univ of California Press, 1985. Print.

Davies, Terence, et al. "A Journey through Italian Cinema." Book Reviews  (2015). Print.

Gallese, Vittorio. "Embodying Movies: Embodied Simulation and Film Experience."  (2017). Print.

Goldman, Peter. "Blowup, Film Theory, and the Logic of Realism." Anthropoetics 14.1 (2008). Print.

Jubis, Oscar. "Openness and Closure in Modernist Cinema: Antonioni/Resnais/Haneke/Martel."  (2013). Print.

Orr, Christopher. "Oedipus on the Po: Antonioni's" Il Grido"." Film Criticism 9.1 (1984): 8-16. Print.

Steimatsky, Noa. "Pass/Fail: The Antonioni Screen Test." Framework: The Journal of Cinema and Media 55.2 (2014): 191-219. Print.