How does the individual relate or interact with an educational organizational culture?

 

Organizational culture can have an extremely important influence over an organization, especially when it comes to the way that the employees of the said organization conduct their duties (Tierney & Lanford, 2015). It has the ability to ensure that individuals are made to focus on the specific objectives of the organization in such a way that they are able to undertake them without feeling any pressure to do so. The importance of organizational culture can also be seen through the way that it develops with the aim of fulfilling the goals of the organization, in this case the vision and the mission (Zafar et al., 2016). Within an educational setting, it plays a pertinent role in securing the academic objectives of the institution in such a way that the management, tutors, and students end up pursuing the same culture that defines the institution. This paper considers the way that the individual interacts with the educational organizational culture using the organizational learning paradigm, with specific reference to management training, management development, and organizational development.

Organizational culture is often developed through management training. This is a process that involves a scenario where the managers of the educational institution involved are provided with training that is in line with its objectives (Cookson, 2017). Organizational cultures as a whole will often have considerable influence on individuals, in this case managers, to such an extent that they end up in a situation where they become more similar than different. A consequence is that it leads to the development of a unified perspective concerning how the institution is to be run to such an extent that the culture that is developed not only remains prevalent, but it is adopted by future generations of managers. Thus, through management training, the institution will often seek to maintain its culture by instilling its philosophy as well as values in such a way that inculcates its norms as examples that should be adhered to by managers. In this way, it becomes possible for the institution involved to maintain its culture over long periods without any notable change unless the change is necessary.

Another important aspect of individual interaction with organizational culture that can be considered through the organizational learning paradigm is management development. Within an educational institution, it is often necessary for there to be the promotion of the unique capabilities of the managers in a bid to utilize them to further the interests of the institution (Megheirkouni, 2017). Institutions will often seek to ensure that they provide their employees with management development through considerable investment. This is seen through the presence of counseling programs, and career testing, which ensures that the individual involved is able to receive feedback on the test results concerning their abilities, personalities, and interests. Individuals are also encouraged to undergo personal growth experiences as a means of making sure that there is the advancement of means through which they can gain new ideas concerning technological advancements and management that could be useful for the educational institution. However, while self-development is the major focus of their process, it is important to note that it is often conducted based on the culture of the institution involved.

Individuals also interact with educational culture through the process of organizational development. From an organizational learning perspective, this is a process that involves planned efforts that are made to ensure that there is the changing of the culture of the institution (Hayat et al., 2019). Organizational culture in this case is used through the use of knowledge from behavioral science. In this way, it becomes possible to ensure that there is the advancement of initiatives aimed at influencing employees to cater to the health and effectiveness of the institution involved through actively participating in cultural change. As such, the major focus of this process is not merely aimed at ensuring the personal growth of the individuals within an institution, but is instead aimed at making sure that there is the establishment of guidelines concerning how the individual is related to his or her work group. The major reason for the use of organizational development is to ensure that there is the improvement of a part or the entire system that makes up the institution as a whole. It allows for the advancement of means through which the individual participates in the promotion of culture change within the institution in order to adapt it to a new environment.

In conclusion, the above discussion considers the way that the individual interacts with the educational organizational culture using the organizational learning paradigm, with specific reference to management training, management development, and organizational development. This is because the educational organizational culture interacts with individuals within the institution in a diversity of ways, including through training, personal development, and through the process of cultural change. In this way, the way that individuals interact with educational organizational culture is significant because it allows for cultural stability within the institutional setting.

The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines

 

The book The Supergirls: Fashion, Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines by Mike Madrid is one that addresses the representation of women in comic books. This representation is one that involves a scenario where the women are shown from different perspectives. However, it recognizes that being women in society is not an easy matter, even in the 21^st century and because of this, there should be the advancement of a situation where women are given more prominent roles in comics. In addition, Madrid considers the way that the representation of women in comics, especially in the beginning, came about during a period when men still made more money than women, and were therefore considered to be providers and protectors. He also considers the way that women continually face an assault when it comes to having control over their bodies, as seen through the presentation of women in scanty attire and large breasts by media. The presentation of women is shown to be a challenge for the image of women in comics, especially when one considers that comics were originally only intended for a male audience. Therefore, this book seeks to explore the way that super heroines have evolved over time from some of the weakest characters in the world of comics to among the strongest as presented in the modern world.

The exploration of the evolution of the super heroine is a significant aspect of this book. This is because Madrid seeks to explore such women as the Blonde Phantom, Black Canary, Manhunter, and Wonder Woman, among others, in a bid to gain a better understanding of the manner through which these individuals have evolved through the decades.[1] He considers the stereotypes that have plagued female superheroes, including their being considerably over-sexualized to such an extent that their relevance is based more on their image than on their actions.[2] The over-sexualization is shown to have reached its peak in the 1990s, when there was the promotion of a bad girl trend that had serious negative ramifications for the image of the women superhero. Another significant aspect of women in comics that is explored by Madrid is the way that they are portrayed as being inferior to men in addition to their being portrayed as pining for the love of a man to the highly ineffectual reasons behind their decisions to fight crime. Therefore, Madrid ensures that he considers the evolution of the manner that women superheroes changed over the decades to such an extent that there was a significant improvement of their image in comics. Thus, he considers their evolution from weaklings to individuals of great strength who are not only selfless, but also brave, like their male counterparts.

Madrid begins his assessment from the 1940s and moves it over the decades to the present. He considers the manner through which women superheroes were forced to endure the same problems are their counterparts in real life.[3] Among the most significant of these aspects is based on the way that they were perceived. Thus, if women fought as hard as men, they were looked upon as being too masculine and when they expressed their feelings, they ended up being referred to as either spoiled or as bitches. Moreover, in circumstances where they either submitted to or were rescued by men, they ended up being viewed as weak. Therefore, Madrid essentially promotes an image of women superheroes as undergoing the same issues as women in real life in such a way that he provides a perspective concerning the way that society viewed them. He shows that society was essentially not satisfied with women, and would always find something to fault them. However, while this may have been the case, it is pertinent to note Madrid makes sure to show the way that these superheroes evolved, as seen through the way that comic book creators who grew up in the women’s liberation movement were able to change the perspective of female superheroes to a more positive and equal one.

Therefore, Madrid considers the way that despite women in the real world being a way from attaining equality, the same cannot be said of superheroes, which are closer to such a goal. This is especially the case when one considers that Wonder Woman, for example, is featured in different comic titles on a consistent basis[4]; a sign of the rising equality in the world of comics. Furthermore, an all-female cast is often published in the X-Men series by Marvel Comics; the latter being a cast that has proven to be quite significant because of their considerable capabilities and strength as portrayed in the Marvel universe. Additionally, the most powerful member of the Fantastic Four is a woman, the Invisible Woman, and this is in combination with her also balancing her role as a mother and a wife. The most dominant comics, Marvel and DC, have undertaken to make sure that they display a diverse array of female superheroes in such a way that has proven significant since these individuals are pushed towards headlining comics, such as She-Hulk, and Bat-Woman. These women have been developed in such a way that they inspire the current generation to overcome gender bias and instead have the women within it fight for their dreams.

Madrid is also concerned about the failures that comic book companies have made over the years. This is especially the case when it comes to the way that they have failed to develop decent films which female heroes headline. The film studios that are associated with these comics have failed to ensure that such strong characters as Catwoman and Elektra as well as Supergirl are provided with an opportunity to truly portray the image of the modern woman.[5] A consequence is that when the films portraying these women have been complete failures due to the lack of significant effort being place in their development. Moreover, Madrid notes that women continue to be portrayed in comics as targets of serious violence; a sign of the manner through which female heroines continue to show the experiences of real life women. It is noteworthy that such individuals, despite coming out of such experiences stronger than ever, are a sign of the way that they are portrayed as inferior. While this may be the case, it is essential to consider that there are increasingly vocal voices calling for the better treatment of female characters in comics. The latter action is significant because it has come to influence the way that female characters in comics are treated, including a process within which women stop being portrayed as victims, and are instead placed in the lead as strong characters.

One of the biggest flaws of the book is that it does not dig deeper into the violence against women that is touched on. It would have been extremely interesting to consider the substantial number of women superheroes that have been tortured, raped, maimed, and killed since they began being portrayed in comic books in comparison to their male counterparts. A consideration of such circumstances would have made for an interesting analysis of the treatment of heroines in comic books over the decades and the manner through which, despite their being portrayed as strong characters, their treatment was still inferior to that of male superheroes. One of the reasons that make this book highly significant is that it gives hope that the super heroine will eventually gain equality in such a way that inspires their real life counterparts to attain the same.

In conclusion, Madrid makes an examination of the way that super heroines have evolved over time from some of the weakest characters in the world of comics to among the strongest as presented in the modern world. The exploration of the evolution of the super heroine is a significant aspect of this book. Madrid begins his assessment from the 1940s and moves it over the decades to the present. Moreover, Madrid considers the way that despite women in the real world being a way from attaining equality, the same cannot be said of superheroes, which are closer to such a goal. Finally, Madrid is concerned about the failures that comic book companies have made over the years, including not putting much effort in the development of viable films headlined by female heroes.

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[1] Mike Madrid, The Supergirls: Feminism, Fantasy, and the History of Comic Book Heroines (Revised and Updated) (Exterminating Angel Press, 2016), 28.

[2] Matthew Facciani, Peter Warren, and Jennifer Vendemia, "A Content-Analysis of Race, Gender, and Class in American Comic Books," Race, Gender & Class 22, no. 3-4 (2015): 218.

[3] Madrid, 1.

[4] Ibid., 110.

[5] Kaitlyn A Cummings, "Same Image, Different Lens: Revisiting the Critical Reception of Two Different Generations of Cinematic Superheroism," Panic at the Discourse: An Interdisciplinary Journal 1, no. 1: 28.

A Counterargument to David Brook's The Prison Problem

 

David Brooks, in his The Prison Problem considers the way that the criminal justice reform is discussed. He essentially criticizes the way that this issue is addressed and he does so in a manner that while well intentioned, is not based on a realistic perspective of the problem. He makes the argument that individuals in society will often be too quick to blame the war on drugs as well as mandatory minimum sentences are the main reason behind mass incarceration. He notes that social problems are more complex than they might seem and that the obvious explanation for these problems tend to be wrong (Brooks). The latter stance is one that can be agreed upon, but despite the pertinence of his point, Brooks is an individual that does not follow his own advice. The arguments made by Brooks are not well considered because he misunderstands the diverse relationships between policy and practice.

One of the arguments that can be made against Brooks’ stance is that harsh laws are what give prosecutors the power to bring about the imprisonment of individuals in society. Brooks makes the conclusion that mass incarceration is not driven by the harsh laws in place. He bases his argument on the work of the Fordham scholar John Pfaff, who has written considerably about the way that prosecutors are the main drivers of mass incarcerations. Pfaff makes the argument that the increase in the filings of felonies per arrest, which is left to the discretion of the prosecutor involved, has been the major driver of the overall population in prison as well as new admissions to these institutions for over two decades. This is the study that Brooks bases his arguments on an suggests that rather than harsh laws being the cause of mass incarceration, it is the fault of prosecutors, who make the decision of whether or not to file any cases.

The arguments made by Pfaff in his research are importance and it is one that can be agreed upon. However, the point of disagreement is with Brooks, who draws conclusions from Pfaff’s findings that are completely wrong. This is because despite the assumption that Brooks makes, prosecutors do not exist or conduct their work in a vacuum, but are rather a part of the wider justice system. Their role in driving mass incarceration can therefore be considered to be based on the manner through which they implement the harsh laws that have been passed by state legislatures. These harsh laws tend to be aimed at not only sending individuals to prison, but also making sure that they remain there for longer periods. The mandatory minimums that are contained within these laws are the driving force behind mass incarceration because they provide prosecutors with the ability to ensure that they secure long sentences. Therefore, the removal of these tough laws and it is most likely that the charging practices of prosecutors will also be changed.

Another argument that Brooks makes is that the reduction in the number of individuals in prison for drugs crimes shows that the war on drugs did not make a contribution to the incarceration rates (Brooks). This is an argument that is quite wrong because when it comes to the problem of mass incarceration, there is the need to ensure that drug reforms are implemented. Brooks argues that drug reforms alone will not lead to a solution to the mass incarceration problem and that this problem can only be undertaken through a process involving a more diversified reform of the justice system. The stance taken by Brooks is one that fails to consider the way that the war on drugs has for the most part brought about a scenario where mass incarceration has become the norm, and that the reality of the situation is that it is far more complex. Therefore the reform of this area has the potential of bringing about real change to the mass incarceration issue.

The reality of the mass incarceration through rolling back the war on drugs would be an extremely difficult task. This is especially the case when one considers the more than four decades of practices and policies that have resulted in the mass incarceration of individuals. Rolling back these policies requires that there is a diverse range of reforms that target all types of offenses. Moreover, the impact of any reforms to drug policies will depend on the state where a prosecution is conducted. The case of the manner through which states have essentially undertaken to pass laws that are tough on sentencing has created an environment within which prosecutors leverage them in making charging decisions. Some of the states that have been rolling back the harsh laws have seen a decline in the number of new admissions in drug offenses; showing the Brooks is wrong concerning the lack of importance of the war on drugs on the problem of mass incarceration.

The impact of reforms on the war on drugs would be positive in relation to ending the problem of mass incarceration. This is especially the case when it comes to the manner through which some states, which have a prevalence of mass incarceration, could end up halving their prison populations. However, while this case is still being debated, it is important to note that a significant number of individuals would still remain in prison. In states such as New York, drug reforms would lead to only about one percent of the prison population being reduced. It is therefore important to make sure that there is the promotion of an environment within which reforms to the justice system, especially in those areas related to the war on drugs, are undertaken in order to ensure that there is the advancement of their interests of all the communities in the United States. Brooks is therefore wrong in his stance that the war on drugs has had little impact on mass incarceration. He fails to consider the way that the drug war has exacerbated the problem and led to the incarceration of individuals for felonies that would otherwise not have happened.

It is therefore critical to ensure that there is an understanding of the issue of mass incarceration from a local and state level rather than the federal one. This is because the national data that Brooks uses to make his argument are obscure at best and should be discarded. A state by state issue would greatly enhance the understanding of mass incarceration and the manner through which it has taken a toll in some communities.

The Great Recession and Government Failure

 

The article “The Great Recession and Government Failure” by Gary Becker is one that seeks to show the reasons behind market failure. It promotes the idea that market failures tend to take place not because of the actions of individuals in the private sector, but rather those of government. Market failures are considered to be a result of the irresponsible actions of government which promote a situation where there is a failure to ensure that there is the advancement of the adoption of efficient policies aimed at making sure that there is the prevention of market failures in the first place. Becker analyses the Great Recession and the government response to it which made the situation worse (Becker, 2011). The increase in government spending with the aim of stimulating the economy proved to be a massive policy failure because the process had never been tested and proven to work before. Becker proposes that it is necessary for government to undertake measures aimed at cutting spending and reducing the national debt in order to promote stable economic growth and reduce the risk of market failures in future.

The individuals that are often the most affected by market failures are the taxpayers, in addition to those who have a stake in the economy. A result of this situation is that there are not only massive losses in the economy, but there are also instances where the government ends up taking measures aimed at controlling the situation. However, most government actions tend to be undertaken based on considerable pressure to ensure that there are greater regulations over the economy. However, there is a failure to consider that it is necessary to promote the advancement of the market where there is little interference from the government while at the same time ensuring that there is maximal competition between the diverse players in the industry.

Market failures come about because of the policies that have been put in place by government. This creates an environment where players in the private industry undertake actions based on the strength of regulations that have been put in place. Under such circumstances, whenever market failures occur, Becker suggests that it is the fault of government because it is this entity which has the power to facilitate the development of strong markets through a reduction of interference in the markets. Furthermore, policies such as the promotion of the achievement of home ownership through the provision of unsafe mortgages, as seen in the case of Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac, two government institutions, prior to the Great Recession may have been responsible for the events that led to the financial crisis (Becker, 2011).

The considerable increase in government expenditure and debt and the lack of any significant actions to curtail it has the potential of harming the economy in the near future. The massive increase that has been seen in government debt and the failure to reduce spending will end up causing market failure because the government is currently spending more than it has. It is necessary to make sure that within the next five to ten years, actions are taken to reduce government expenditure, especially in those programs that promote entitlement, and cost the government billions to fund every year. Without such initiatives, it is likely that there will be another recession within a decade, which will be extremely difficult to get out of.

Rebirth: Mexican Los Angeles from the Great Migration to the Great Depression

 

Douglas Monroy’s Rebirth: Mexican Los Angeles from the Great Migration to the Great Depression is an extremely important book when it comes to study of the history of Los Angeles, especially concerning Mexicans in the area. It provides a clearer understanding of the experiences that Mexicans had in the twentieth century in rich and diverse ways that humanizes the experiences that these individuals had in the city of Los Angeles. It provides a means through which to show the reader the diversity of opinions concerning the various issues and day to day life that Mexicans had to experience in an environment where they were both at home while at the same time not being fully accepted as part of society. Under such circumstances, it becomes possible to draw a clearer picture of the different experiences that Mexicans had based on the cultural, political, and economic contexts of the time to show that the Mexican experience in Los Angeles is an essential aspect of the story that forms the identity of the United States today.

One of the most important aspects of this book is that it examines the way that Mexicans were essentially marginalized labor in the city. It shows that there were attempts aimed at making sure that there was the Americanization of Mexicans in the city through the development of programs that sought to bring about greater control over them. The various industries in which Mexican laborers worked sought to exert control over these individuals to ensure that they were not only forced to give up their own cultural identity, but also conform to the type of labor provision roles that American workers had conformed to. Monroy also shows that the process of coming to America and settling down in Los Angeles significantly changed the culture of Mexicans because they ended up forming a synthetic culture that essentially made these individuals practice a synthesis of Mexican and American culture. Furthermore, he shows the way that the children of Mexicans tended to become different from their parents through their delving into American popular culture.

The significant marginalization that Mexicans faced outside their homes made their homes a refuge. This is because it was a place where they felt safe in the presence of their families. However, Monroy discusses the way that the home could be a place of generational conflict, with Mexican parents often believing that their children had changed and become so different from them. This new generation of Mexican Americans sought to adapt to the best of both sides of their heritage in such a way that promoted their new identity. Furthermore, Monroy discusses the way that Mexicans in Los Angeles fought against their marginalization through their mobilization as workers. Furthermore, they sought to ensure that they created their own spaces that created a sense of home, or el Mexico de Afuera. Thus, while these individuals may have lived in Los Angeles, their continued marginalization ensured that they ended up reaffirming their nationalist ties to Mexico.

In the writing of this book, Monroy uses a blend of cultural studies and historical methodology. A consequence of this situation is that there is the use of a diversity of sources in order to develop an understanding of the Mexican experience in Los Angeles. In some chapters of the book, Monroy writes in a way that remains very close to his sources so that he is able to develop his narrative from the bottom to the top. The use of this method is critically important because it ensures that future scholars on the same subject can make use of the foundations created to further their own studies. This method can be seen in discussions concerning the position that Mexicans occupied in the secondary labor market, the generational conflicts, as well as the responses that they had towards efforts towards their Americanization.

Moreover, Monroy is able to ensure that there is the advancement of a situation where he promotes his credentials as a cultural historian. This is seen through the way that he juxtaposes different events with one another in order to enhance the arguments that he is making. An example of such a situation is where there was the promotion of the idea that the city of Los Angeles was one where individuals within ended up burning their cultural roots. This new image often failed to consider the often discriminatory and brutal past of California, such as the genocide of Native Americans in the area as well as the wrong impression that Mexicans were only recent arrivals in the United States. This significant failure on the part of the elite of the city is addressed by Monroy in such a way that enhances the need for a more critical study of the history of Los Angeles and the state of California as a whole.

Monroy’s use of juxtaposition can be seen through his analysis of two events, The Railroad Worker’s strike, and Fiesta Days. He shows that the Fiesta Days were used in order to promote a romanticized version of the history of Los Angeles through the use of parades, and decorations. However, before this event, the railroad construction workers went on strike because they demanded to have a living wage, which their employers denied them. The responses to these demands showed the manner through which Mexicans were disenfranchised. The juxtaposition that is used by Monroy shows the manner through which ethnicity or ethnic identity could play an extremely central role in the projection of the image of Los Angeles while at the same time being used as a means of relegating ethnic communities to the periphery.

In his discussion of the diverse processes of ethnic formation, Monroy seeks to show the way that Mexicans ended up becoming Mexican American. This was a process that involved coming to terms with what it meant to be Mexican. Prior to coming to the United States, Mexicans tended to identify with their respective regions in Mexico. However, once they had immigrated, all this changed because in the United States, it did not matter what region one came from. Instead, these individuals had to learn to transcend their regional identity and adopt a national one. This is exemplified in sport, where Mexican-Americans tended to identify with Mexican boxers, and this enabled them to ensure that they developed a national identity that transcended their regional ones (Monroy, 1999, p. 59). Therefore, the formation of national identity started at such every day levels as sports, where Mexicans only played in teams that emphasized their national identity as Mexicans rather than the regions in Mexico from which they originated.

In the process of painting a picture concerning Mexican Los Angeles, Monroy is able to put together the use of historical analysis and cultural theory. An example of this situation is in the instances where he seeks to discuss the generational conflicts that occurred because of acculturation. He shows that a considerable number of migrant families had to cope with a diversity of changes in their lives, including their marginalization in the workplace. Furthermore, he seeks to show the way that immigrant Mexican families ended up being weakened through the emphasis of individualized labor, which would replace family labor. The disconnection between family and labor in the new environment essentially delegitimized patriarchal authority in such a way that the younger generation felt free to be able to make its own decisions. Therefore, Monroy seeks to make sure that there is the advancement of an understanding of the manner through which Mexican families ended up changing in such a way that there was generational conflict through an analysis of the extensive documentation concerning the experiences of younger Mexicans in Los Angeles.

Monroy uses a unique approach in making sure that there is the development of the various subjects that he discusses in the book. His approach is one that ensures that there is the provision for a diversity of historical interpretations concerning the history of Los Angeles and the Mexican role in it. It further ensures that there is a rich narrative that makes it possible for new directions for scholars to understand and enhance their understanding of the early twentieth century and the manner through which Los Angeles was made richer because of its Mexican history.