The Jewish Legion at Crownhill Fort

 

Plymouth had constructed an impressive line of fortifications to defend the important Naval base at Devonport in the latter half of the Nineteenth Century. The central and most imposing of these fortifications was the heptagon-shaped Crownhill Fort.

David Ben Gurion

 When World War One broke out, it became a training and transit depot for the Middle Eastern and African Theatres of War. As World War One progressed it would go on to become the home of the newly formed Jewish Legion.

On the 23rd August, 1917, the formation of a "Jewish Regiment" was officially announced. This would become better known as the Jewish Legion and was technically the 38th – 42nd Battalions of the Royal Fusiliers. Most of these troops were sent for training and preparation for fighting in the Middle East to Crownhill Fort. Interestingly, the Jewish Legion was announced before the famous Balfour Letter of November 1917 which stated that "His Majesty's Government view with favour the establishment in Palestine of a National Home for the Jewish people". Both the creation of the Legion and the Balfour letter need to be understood in terms of the strategic situation in the fighting in the Middle East at the time. British forces had been stalled at the gates to Palestine at Gaza since early 1917. The third and victorious battle of Gaza coincided with this promise to Jews just as Britain's forces were about to enter Palestine proper. It was hoped that they would soon have Jewish troops fighting by their side as soon as they finished their training in Plymouth. The Jewish Legion was quite a cosmopolitan unit with volunteers not only from Britain but also from the USA, Russia, Canada, Argentina and of course throughout the Middle East - including some ex Ottoman Empire troops who had switched sides. Many of the earliest British recruits had been tailors due to this being an important Jewish profession in Britain's cities. Many of the Russian Jews had fled Revolutionary Russia. Jewish soldiers serving in other regiments could apply to switch to the Jewish Legion, but there was no compulsion or expectation to do so and many Jews continued to serve in a wide variety of regular British Regiments. At any one time there would be 800-900 training in and around Crownhill Fort. The volunteers wore the Magen David on their khaki uniforms and had their own blue-white banner with the inscription, "If I forget thee, O Jerusalem".

Ze’ev Jabotinsky

Two of the Legion's most famous soldiers would be David Ben-Gurion who went on to become the first Prime Minister of the independent Jewish State of Israel in 1948 and Ze’ev Jabotinsky who was hugely influential in the inter-war Zionist movement and had been instrumental in lobbying for the creation of this Jewish Legion since the Gallipoli Campaign. Ben-Gurion himself had initially helped raise a Jewish militia in Jerusalem on the side of the Ottoman Turks. However, after the publication of the Balfour Letter he immediately volunteered to join the Jewish Legion in the British Army. He spent much of 1918 in Plymouth where he was very impressed with the green countryside: "It is one of the most marvelous places I have ever seen. When I went out into the fields at dawn for the first time and gazed at the view around our tents, I was intoxicated by the charming scene. Somehow, I didn’t imagine I would ever see a panorama like this in England. Green mountains and valleys covered with silk, fertile fields and the shadows of nearby forest."

Jewish Legion Staff

Despite the best efforts of everyone involved in the Jewish Legion's training, there was still a strong element of antisemitism within the British military and indeed within wider society. This made accommodating the basic needs of the Jewish recruits problematic. The commanding officer was Lieutenant-Colonel John Patterson (of the Man-Eaters of Tsavo fame). He had actually been the commander of the fore runner of the Jewish Legion; the Zion Mule Corps which had served in the Gallipoli Campaign and which again had been organised and supplied from Plymouth. He himself was a Protestant and admitted that he knew almost nothing of Jewish culture before his involvement with these Jewish volunteers. However, he believed that ‘the only way to make good Jewish soldiers of the men was by first of all treating them as good Jews’. He threatened to resign three times to higher command if his requests for his troops were not met. Eventually it was through his insistence that the battalions were able to observe the Sabbath on the Saturday, have access to Kosher food and to have religious leaders made available to them or to be allowed to attend religious services in the Synagogue in Plymouth. One of the Jewish Legion commented "It is a fact that Colonel Patterson saw to it - how I do not know - that every Saturday should find us in a Rest Camp; in the morning we would have Synagogue Parade, with all the officers and men, even Christians, standing with their hats on, with the Zionist Flag flying from a tall flagpole, with the Scroll of the Law given to us by the Plymouth Community, and with the concert choir singing all the prayers and the "Hatikvah" and the English National Anthem at the end."

Jacob Epstein

The battalion itself was proving to be a model unit. Throughout its stay in Plymouth there was not a single case of crime involving any of the Legion's soldiers. Patterson wrote somewhat tongue in cheek "Something new in Army annals". He also set up a wet canteen which served beer, which was also unheard of in the British Army. Patterson commented whilst at Crownhill Fort: "It came as a surprise to me to find that a little tailor snatched from the purlieus of Petticoat Lane, who had never in all his life wielded anything more dangerous than a needle, soon became quite adept in the use of the rifle and bayonet and could transfix a dummy figure of the Kaiser in the most approved scientific style, while negotiating a series of obstacle trenches at the double." and that "Every commander who inspected us always expressed his astonishment at the rock-like steadiness of the Jewish Battalion."

Parade at Crownhill Fort

 Indeed, when General MacReady came down from London to inspect the troops at Crownhill Fort, he was so impressed by what he saw and the bearing of the troops in general that he told Patterson that he would never refuse a reasonable request from the battalion ever again. There was one amusing episode recorded which could either be considered a language problem or perhaps more likely a wicked sense of humour from a Yemenite Jew on guard duty. As one British officer approached the fort, the guard challenged him with the appropriate: "Halt! Who Goes There!" When he received the correct response of "Friend!" the guard amazed the visiting officer by replying: "Advance friend and be circumcised!" History does not record the officer's response! The Jewish Legion enjoyed their time in Plymouth and created a real esprit de corps that they took with them to the Middle East. Patterson took the first tranche of troops to the Middle East in Janurary 1918, although Crownhill remained a training depot for the Legion until the end of the war as new recruits from further afield, like the USA and Argentina made their way to Plymouth to train. David Ben-Gurion for instance was one of these later trainees. After the war ended in November of that year, the Legion's name was changed to the Judean Regiment and it served in the newly created British Mandate of Palestine, although with much reduced manpower. The modern day Israeli Defence Force traces a direct line in its own history back to the Jewish Legion and its surprising origins in Crownhill Fort!

Memories of Life in Turkana by Mervyn Maciel

 I doubt if there are many who would have volunteered for service in the arid and inhospitable region of Kenya’s N.F.D. (Northern Frontier district) in the 1940s – but this is precisely what I did when, as a fairly young and still a new entrant to the Civil Service, I asked for a posting to the remote N.F.D.

I knew of an Uncle (John) who had previously served in Lodwar in the 1930s and who had never forgotten the bouts of malaria he had contracted in this God-forsaken district called Turkana. The very mention of the word “Lodwar” conjured images of a punishing region, and who in their right mind would ever want to serve there? Well, this is the very district I received my posting for in 1949. However, looking back on the time I spent in this inferno, I have nothing but happy memories of my days among the Turkana. One has to remember that when one is young, one is all out for adventure, regardless of any discomforts or dangers. The road journey from Kitale (in the Kenya Highlands) to Lodwar was an adventure in itself! No comfortable cars to transport me there; instead, a bulky Army-type truck laden with supplies for the officials and traders in the area.

A Turkana Belle

To call it a bumpy ride would be putting it mildly; but there was worse to come when I actually arrived at Lodwar boma. For one thing, the oppressive heat and the incessant buzzing of flies all around hit me immediately on arrival; then, there was the sight of naked tribesmen strolling unashamedly through the township. Whatever had I let myself in for, I wondered? But, all was not doom and gloom.

I was thrilled when I was shown the impressive-looking Government quarter I’d been allocated. What intrigued me was the fact that there was no inside loo, but a temporary long drop structure a few yards from the house with no door and in full view of the public! Half-naked women walking by, were quite unconcerned at the sight of us, civilised individuals, staring at them curiously.

Turkana Tribesmen

The Turkana are amongst the most primitive people in East Africa who inhabit a mostly barren and remote region of Kenya and survive on the bare minimum of possessions. Their worldly wealth can be measured by the few items they possess, e.g.spears, a wrist knife, and their prize “echikolo” (a wooden stool which serves both as a pillow (head rest) and as a seat), a few goats, a cooking pot and, if lucky, a blanket. While we in the West may regard them as poor, nay, even destitute, the Turkana, with the little they possess, regard themselves as rich, and rich indeed they are! They have none of the selfish traits that are so common in our so-called “civilised” society; they are content with their lot and not greedy or avaricious. Their attitude towards life has left a lasting impression on me. Their pride, especially among the women, lies in displaying the colourful beads, necklaces and bracelets that adorn their bodies, while the men show off their ostrich-plume headdress as they enjoy their daily Ngomas (dances).

A ‘hell on earth’ it may well have been in the words of the late President Jomo Kenyatta (who spent part of his internment here during the colonial era) – but for me, I still treasure happy memories of the simple folk I met during my time in the pitiless heat of Lodwar (Turkana).

An Unexpected Journey by Margaret Reardon

 Travel by ship formed an abiding memory for so many who lived and worked around the Empire. It could take weeks or even months to get to your destination and getting to the ports and to your final destination might take even more interesting forms of transportation. Given the distances, returns to Britain to see family and friends were only likely every couple of years or so at best. In the post-war period, air transportation was making inroads but the small and uncomfortable planes were more likely to be reserved for military purposes or diplomatic messages and tended to stop off at multiple airfields along a long and complicated route. It really was not until the advent of jetliners from the 1960s onwards that plane travel become comfortable enough and economic enough to displace ship travel. Until then the post-war period saw something of an Indian summer for liner travel. Many ships had been released from war duties and shipyards switched from making military ships to commercial and passenger vessels.

The ships could be of variable quality, but the sedate form of travel allowed people to mix with unusual travelling companions who were off to equally exotic or remote locations. Passengers were at the mercy of the elements and also somewhat to the class of ticket they could afford or had been provided with. Ships would break up the monotony with on board entertainment, sports, games and various rituals such as crossing the equator.

The memories of people like Stephanie Hewat-Jaboor (nee Brend) whose own family were posted to Eritrea and Tanzania are perhaps typical of those who experienced ship travel in the last days of Britain's Empire in Africa:

"The first ship my family travelled on was the EMPIRE KEN, which I believe was a converted German Ship, which had been used by the SS officers as a holiday cruise ship. My family were travelling to Eritrea at that time. The ship was full of Italian prisoners of war who were dropped off in Italy, none of them seemed keen to return there. The next ship I recall was the Llangibby Castle which was on it's last voyage before being scrapped. I understand why it was scrapped as my clearest memory of that ship was the dreadful food and loads of cockroaches!! We also travelled on one of the Italian boats from the LlOYD TRESTINO shipping line. It was nicely finished but travelled like a cork on water, with no stabilizers. We also travelled to and from East Africa on other UNION CASTLE ships. One in particular that I remember was the PRETORIA CASTLE. We travelled closely with a French speaking Belgian family who were travelling to the Congo. We were sad to learn that they were killed in a massacre shortly after reaching their home in the Congo. Air travel was ghastly. It was mostly Argonaut planes that stopped half a dozen times getting from a very basic Heathrow airport to Nairobi."

Barbara Lipska's The neuroscientist who lost her mind

 

The Neuroscientist Who Lost Her Mind is a book by Barbara Lipska, one of the leading experts in mental disease neuroscience, and her experiences following the diagnosis of melanoma. This disease had spread to her brain, with the result being that with a few months, her frontal lobe, which presides over cognition, had begun to shut down. She ended up descending to madness, often exhibiting symptoms that were associated with schizophrenia and dementia. A consequence of this situation was that she ended up being treated through a number of measures including immunotherapy, which worked well and allowed for a marked improvement. Thus, within eight weeks of the event beginning, Lipska returned to a life of normalcy. However, despite this being the case, one major difference that Lipska experienced was that she remembered her entire experience with considerable clarity. Lipska’s experiences can be considered to have been quite important in contributing to her work as a neuroscientist. It allowed for the development of a situation where there was an addition of value to the way that she understood the workings of the human mind and the manner through which it responds to a diversity of stimuli.

The lessons that Lipska had because of her experiences allowed her to better understand the mind and the brain. This is especially the case when one considers that in this book, she explains the connections that are there between brain injury, mental illness, and age and the way that they end up changing the cognition, memory, personality, and behavior of individuals. She further tells the story of her firsthand experience of the issues surrounding mental problems and how she was better able to understand the processes that were taking place. Moreover, based on her experiences, she goes as far as revealing which parts of the minds of individuals end up disappearing and those that remain. A consequence of this scenario is that she makes use of her experiences as the basis upon which to study neuroscience, especially mental illness and the ways that they can end up creating an environment within which it is difficult for individuals to attain clarity over their lives.

Despite their frustrating aspects, it is important to note that cognitive lapses that she experiences are separate enough to be recognized. Thus, even Lipska, in her condition, was able to understand that the cause of her problems was her brain being placed under a lot of stress. The effects that it had on her personality are also significant because she ended up losing the capacity to determine the impact of her actions on others. The love that she displayed towards her family suddenly turned to tantrums and harshness to such an extent that she essentially treats them as strangers. However, once the tumors in her brain were in remission, she finds it quite difficult to remember the behavior and moods that she had displayed and put so much strain on those who had been with her at the time. Lipska therefore writes as a means of making sure that there is a greater understanding for the actions that mentally ill individuals take.

Lipska leverages her understanding of the complex connections in the brain as a means of creating connections and relationships between the diversity of functional areas within it. She is therefore able to weave together real and tactile scenes as well as characters from her life to provide an insight into the experiences she underwent. It is also noteworthy that because of this approach, Lipska is able to succeed in a wide range of criteria since she is adept at the employment of her vast trove of knowledge as a neuroscientist to apply it to clinical settings where human research is being conducted. She is also able to provide a rich experience of the senses that she had following the loss of her mind, as seen through her attempt to ensure that there is the promotion of a scenario where the reader might taste, feel, and smell in order to better understand what takes place in the mind of mentally ill individuals.

Lipska also takes on the pertinent step of comparing the experience she underwent to that of her research animals. She believes that the severance of communication between her hippocampus and prefrontal cortex is a major cause of her mental illness. She compares this to the prefrontal cortical connections in rats that she disrupts in the lab as she studies schizophrenia. The significance of this observation is based on the fact that she felt the unpleasantness of the situation, which, because it was happening firsthand to her, allowed her to feel the way that she recognizes her research animals feel. She comes to the realization that her only chance at surviving this event is through an immunotherapy treatment that, despite not having been proven completely due to its being in the early stages of testing, is her best chance at returning to normalcy. It is important that because of her decision, she essentially took the place of the experimental animal.

She explains that her neurological symptoms came about because of inflammation, which was caused by the immunotherapy. This experimental process is one that allowed her to survive because following the swelling being treated using steroids, her neurological symptoms not only abased, but they also led to a scenario where her madness was also cured. Lipska therefore became a survivor of an event that is usually extremely difficult for individuals to come back from. She was given the hope of a total remission and despite there being considerable anxiety concerning recurrence, she recognized the reality of her having beaten this problem at that time. As a survivor with memories of what had taken place, Lipska is therefore in a prominent position when it comes to better understanding how best to handle research concerning neurological treatment of the symptoms of mental illness.

In conclusion, the manner through which Lipska grappled with her identity as well as her gradual acceptance of her condition is significant in allowing her to be more effective in her work. This is especially the case when it comes to the way that she grapples with her mental illness and the way that she connects her own suffering to the sense of identity that individuals will experience in their lives. The grasp with the sense of identity that Lipska experienced was therefore essential in enhancing her capabilities as a neuroscientist. It allowed her to gain a different perspective concerning how to describe the experiences of mental patients and how best to handle their afflictions.

The issue of race in the works of bell hooks and Luther Standing Bear

 

Gloria Jean Watkins, also known by her pen name Bell Hooks, is a social activist, feminist, professor, and author. She borrowed her pen name from her maternal great-grandmother, Bell Blair Hooks, because she was an individual that was never afraid to speak out and the result was that she was greatly admired. Hooks was born in 1952 in Hopkinsville, Kentucky to working class parents.[1] Hopkinsville was a segregated town and from the beginning of her life, Hooks had to go to public schools which were also segregated. Furthermore, as an avid reader in an environment of segregation, she ended up writing concerning the considerable adversities that she had to endure especially when she had to make a transition to an integrated school, where the majority of students and teachers were white; a scenario that was quite new to her. However, following her education, she began her career in 1976 at the University of Southern California where she was an English professor and senior lecturer in Ethnic Studies.[2] It was during her three years at this institution that she ended up having her first published work, And There We Wept in 1978.[3] The major focus of her writings has been on capitalism, gender, and race and the manner through which these have been prominent in the perpetuation of class domination and oppression in society. She is an individual that has not only published numerous books, but also participated in public lectures as well as documentary films. Thus, Hooks is therefore an individual that, through her works, has been able to undertake the task of addressing such issues as sexuality, mass media, history, art, and feminism.

One of Bell Hooks’ most notable works is Touching the Earth, which makes an attempt to show the way that the African American people are connected to the earth. She promotes the idea that African Americans should undertake to ensure that they reclaim the spiritual legacy in such a way that they end up connecting their personal wellbeing to that of the earth.[4] Furthermore, she suggests that it is necessary for African Americans to recognize that the fight to save the environment and the fight against racism are actually competing concerns, especially when one considers that the agrarian South has a direct connection with racism. The importance of this factor cannot be underestimated because it shows the manner through which the African American singular focus on bringing an end to racism has created a situation where they are completely divorced from nature.[5] Hooks further considers the way that their living close to nature has a beneficial effect on African Americans because they were able to attain a spirit of wonder that advocated for a reverence of life. However, because of their desire to escape the racial injustice that was prevalent in the South, they moved to the cities of the North, which resulted in the loss of connection with the agrarian South. In this way, rather than being connected to nature, they missed the entire connection to such an extent that they were forced to become what they were not. The sensual beauty of the South was gone, replaced by the divorce from community that is a constant feature of life in cities.[6] Thus, Hooks makes the connection between nature and race and considers the human divorce from nature to be the cause of racism.

In the essays Indian Wisdom by Luther Sanding Bear and Bell Hooks’ Touching the Earth, there are two sections in the former and one in the latter. These sections address the various concerns that the authors seek to bring to public notice. The first section in Indian Wisdom is one that seeks to address the matter of nature and the manner through which it was one of the mainstays of Native American society because of the close connection that they had to nature.[7] The second section makes an analysis of Native American religion and the way that it was an essential aspect of their lives based on not only their close connection to nature, but also the way that they did not fear nature. The section in Touching the Earth, on the other hand, addresses the connection between black people and the land and the way that because of this connection, they essentially lost their humanity when the moved away from the rural South to the urban North.

A number of shared themes are found in both Indian Wisdom and Touching the Earth. One of the most significant of these is the connection between humans and nature. This connection is seen in page 202 by the way that Standing Bear addresses the way that the Native Americans, specifically the Lakota, were very connected to nature to the extent of their being referred to as naturalists.[8] In page 363, Hooks also addresses the connection to nature, stating that by loving the earth, humans are able to love themselves. Another theme that is brought to the fore is that of the attempt to tame nature.[9] This is seen through the way that Standing Bear in page 205 shows the attempts by the white man to tame nature, and Hooks’ in page 365 who addresses the way that African Americans migrated from the rural South to the industrialized North.[10] Also, the theme of racism comes to the fore, as seen through the way that Native Americans are viewed as savages in page 205 of Indian Wisdom and the matter of racial harassment that black people encountered in the South as seen in page 366 of Hooks’ Touching the Earth.[11] The theme of spirituality and religion is also pertinent in Indian Wisdom page 206 and Touching the Earth page 365, which are addressed through the concern about the connection between spirituality and nature. Conservation is another theme that is common in both essays, and they each address the manner through which nature should be allowed to remain as it is for the welfare of all individuals. Finally, the theme of fear is also prominent, as seen through the way that Standing Bear, in page 205, seeks to promote the idea that white people are afraid of nature and this is the reason why the seek to tame it, and the fear of being out of place due to alienation of nature in page 365 of Hooks’ Touching the Earth.[12]

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[1] "Bell Hooks Biography," Encyclopedia of World Biographies, https://www.notablebiographies.com/He-Ho/Hooks-Bell.html.

[2] Gary L Anderson and Kathryn G Herr, Encyclopedia of Activism and Social Justice (Sage Publications, 2007), 706.

[3] "Bell Hooks Speaks Up," The Sandspur, https://issuu.com/thesandspur/docs/112-17.

[4] Bell Hooks, "Touching the Earth," At Home on the Earth: Becoming  (2010): 364.

[5] Mayumi Toyosato, "Living in Place as African American Tradition: Inhabitory Consciousness in Her Own Place,"  (2004): 28.

[6] Peter HH Kahn Jr and Batya Friedman, "On Nature and Environmental Education: Black Parents Speak from the Inner City," Environmental Education Research 4, no. 1 (1998): 36.

[7] Chief Luther Standing Bear, "Indian Wisdom (1933)," The Great New Wilderness Debate  (1998): 202.

[8] Ibid.

[9] Hooks,  363.

[10] Ibid., 365; Bear,  205.

[11] 205; Hooks,  366.

[12] 365; Bear,  205.